Toward an understanding of challenge and threat in athletes

The aims of this research programme were to a. Further examine and develop an existing self-report measure of Challenge and Threat within a sport context, b. Examine Challenge and Threat self-report with performance in a sport context, c. Further examine the Biopsychosocial Model (BPSM) proposed in relation to Challenge and Threat and sport performance, d. Examine the associations between Challenge, Threat, cortisol response and sport performance, e. Examine self-report of emotions direction and intensity experienced during a sport performance in regard to Challenge and Threat and f. Examine Challenge and Threat in combination with each other in regard to sport performance. These 6 aims were addressed in 3 different empirical studies. Study 1 used a cross sectional study design to explore the validity and reliability of an existing self-report measure of Challenge and Threat. Participants were gym users (n=200, Mage=24.91) and asked to complete the self-report measure before a dart-throwing competition. Study 2 comprised of three different stages. Stage 1; a cross sectional study design to examine the content validity of a pool of existing self-report items to measure Challenge and Threat in a range of athletes (n=25, Mage=22.00). Participants comprised of male and female athletes engaged in various sports (football, n=6, cricket, n=2, swimming, n=5, tennis, n=1, rugby, n=6, netball, n=3, basketball, n=2.). Stage 2, used a cross sectional study design to further examine the construct validity of the remaining items from stage 1. This stage used principle components analysis (PCA) to determine whether Challenge and Threat self-report items were grouped in a particular way (Kline, 1994). Participants were competitive runners (n=197, Mage=37.11) and asked to complete the self-report measure regarding Challenge and Threat before competition. Stage 3 used a cross sectional study design to explore the validity and reliability of the self-report measure of Challenge and Threat developed in stages 1-2 in competitive runners (n=147, Mage =30.06), using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine how well the data total fitted the proposed hypothetical model. Finally a quasi-experimental study (study 3) examined the association between Challenge and Threat and shooting performance. This study explored the Challenge and Threat self-report measure and its relationship with performance, emotions and physiological responses. Participants in this study comprised of university student and staff members (n=102, Mage =27.11). Results from study 1 suggested that the existing self-report measure of Challenge and Threat utilised was not suitable for use within a sport context. Results from study 2, stage 1, revealed a pool of self-report items that athletes described as applicable and relevant to their sports performance. Results from study 2, stage 2, suggested that items identified in study 2, stage 1 represented a two component solution, one associated with Threat and the other Challenge. Results from study 2, stage 3 suggested that a 12 item self-report measure was suitable for use within a sport context and that Challenge has a positive association with sport performance. Finally, study 3, suggested that the self-report measure of Challenge and Threat developed in study 2 (stages 1-3) was suitable for use within a sport context. Results from study 3 also suggest that a mixture of Challenge and Threat can have implications for performance outcome. Emotions reported were shown to have associations with Challenge and Threat self-report, as suggested by The Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA). The study findings showed that physiological associations with Challenge and Threat were equivocal. Limitations to the present research programme and directions for future research are discussed