Adventures in red ink. Effectiveness of corrective feedback in digital game-based language learning

Both in second and foreign language (L2) teaching environments and in digital games, feedback is considered indispensable as well as a powerful device to support learning. However, the state of affairs in the fields of second language acquisition and educational psychology shows that the effects of corrective (negative) feedback (CF) are not univocal, and suggests that the effectiveness of CF in digital game-based language learning is likely to depend on the following factors: the type of CF ( explicit or implicit ), how learning is measured (as the development of explicit or implicit L2 knowledge), and individual differences related to learners receptivity to CF, namely perceived usefulness of CF and intrinsic motivation. The current PhD project investigates the complex interplay between these factors both from a theoretical point of view and empirically, and in a highly interdisciplinary way, combining insights from the literatures of second language acquisition, computer-assisted language learning (CALL; by itself a highly interdisciplinary undertaking), educational psychology and technology, motivational psychology, and game studies.Subsequent to the general introduction (chapter 1) and the theoretical study (chapter 2), this dissertation presents the results of four empirical studies with prototypes of digital game-based experiences engineered for the instruction and practice of English as a L2. These were evaluated mainly in the context of secondary education.The first empirical study (chapter 3) explores the role of individual differences vis-à-vis CF types in a 3D immersive game designed for the instruction of English pragmatics. It shows that learners (N=83) found explicit CF more useful than more implicit CF, and that the perceived usefulness of explicit CF correlated positively with parameters of motivation. The second empirical study (chapter 4) investigates learners (N=36) use of explicit metalinguistic CF in a written interactive murder mystery, and cannot present any evidence that perceived usefulness predicted CF use; there was a strong positive association, however, between CF use and prior metalinguistic knowledge. The third and fourth empirical studies focus on the effectiveness of grammar practice with CF in mini-games. The third study (chapter 5) found that vivid CF, adapted to the fantasy of the game concept, affected learners (N=32) intrinsic motivation positively, which was related to their willingness to practise more. The fourth empirical chapter (chapter 6) reports on the effects of grammar practice on L2 learning in a two-month study, comprising one month of practice. The results indicate that intensive practice supported by mini-games and CF helped learners (N=125; control group N=61) to develop L2 grammar knowledge that was useful for their performance on various transfer tasks (both near and far transfer). Moreover, the effects of explicit metalinguistic CF were, by and large, stronger than the effects of CF which did not include any metalinguisticexplanation; this finding did not apply to learners performance on a complex spoken language task.The final chapter of this dissertation (chapter 7) discusses the main findings, and presents directions for future research. The results of this project bode well for the design of powerful technology-mediated language learning spaces which seek to engage learners by drawing on their gaming experience or interest, and which are aimed at supporting learners in mastering the conventions of formal language use.status: publishe