Doing the 'impossible': notes for a general theory of planning

If a 'general theory of planning' is impossible, a contingent framework is proposed to integrate prevailing and emergent planning paradigms which present four different views of planning: deliberative rationality, communicative practice, coordinative planning, and frame setting. These are not mutually exclusive but are complementary aspects of a contingent and dynamic planning process. Rationality is invoked in deliberative problem solving by individuals or quasi-individuals, whose interaction takes the form of communicative practice. Coordinative planning represents interaction between organizations, whereas the domain of planning as frame setting is the community. This contingent framework also subsumes descriptive and normative planning models, which are reviewed and illustrated.