Servant leadership and job satisfaction in K-12 schools: A systematic review

Teachers are the most important assets for a school because their work leads to improvement in a school’s bottom line: its students’ performance. With the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 and with its recent replacement by the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, schools across the United States have been under pressure to show sustained improvements in their students’ performance. At the same time the increase in teachers’ job dissatisfaction and the resulting spike in turnover rates have a negative impact on student performance, which can lead to long-term societal and economic impacts. School leadership plays a pivotal role in the employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. Among the various types of leadership, servant leadership has been shown to have a positive correlation with employee job satisfaction in schools. However, due to a lack of consensus among management scholars on the dimensionality of servant leadership, it is difficult for practitioners to understand, implement, and train others on servant leadership. Using systematic review as the research methodology, the present research identified key servant-leadership behaviors that have the strongest correlation with employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. The present researcher found the behavior of “values people” to have the strongest correlation with job satisfaction, whereas the behavior of “builds community” has the second strongest correlation. This research clarifies the ambiguity associated with the servant leadership construct, especially as it applies in K-12 schools. It offers K-12 school leaders a concrete plan of action to work on improving employee job satisfaction and student performance. More empirical studies and training programs are needed to further clarify the servant-leadership construct in schools.Running head: SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 1 Servant Leadership and Job Satisfaction in K-12 Schools: A Systematic Review By Haroon Rasheed Baqai Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Management Advisory Committee Dr. Kriesta L. Watson Dr. Richard G. Milter December 2017 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 2 Abstract Teachers are the most important assets for a school because their work leads to improvement in a school’s bottom line: its students’ performance. With the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 and with its recent replacement by Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, schools across the United States have been under pressure to show sustained improvements in their students’ performance. At the same time the increase in teachers’ job dissatisfaction and the resulting spike in turnover rates have a negative impact on student performance, which can lead to long-term societal and economic impacts. School leadership plays a pivotal role in the employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. Among the various types of leadership, servant leadership has been shown to have a positive correlation with employee job satisfaction in schools. However, due to a lack of consensus among management scholars on the dimensionality of servant leadership, it is difficult for practitioners to understand, implement, and train others on servant leadership. Using systematic review as the research methodology, the present research identified key servant-leadership behaviors that have the strongest correlation with employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. The present researcher found the behavior of “values people” to have the strongest correlation with job satisfaction, whereas the behavior of “builds community” has the second strongest correlation. This research clarifies the ambiguity associated with the servant leadership construct, especially as it applies in K-12 schools. It offers K-12 school leaders a concrete plan of action to work on improving employee job satisfaction and student performance. More empirical studies and training programs are needed to further clarify the servant-leadership construct in schools. Keywords: Servant leadership, job satisfaction, schools, motivator-hygiene theory, self-determination theory, Robert Greenleaf. SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 3 Acknowledgements I start off by thanking God (Allah) – the One Who deserves to be worshipped alone – for helping me throughout this journey. This journey was challenging at times. Without His help, I could not have finished it. I am also indebted to Him for blessing me with an amazingly supportive wife, Sajeela Yaqub, whose constant help and encouragement got me through this journey. Thank you for sacrificing so much for me always, and for being the rock of my life. To my precious daughter Maryam, who gave up her valuable childhood times so I can complete this degree. To my three sisters, Shumaila, Sumayya, and Khansa, who, although were far from me in distance, always wished me well and motivated me throughout my degree program. To my amazing parents – Rasheed Baqai and Imrana Tabassum – for their unconditional love and prayers for me to reach the finish line; thank you for your blessings and motivation. To my ever-loving and supportive in-laws – Dr. Muhammad Yaqub and Nasreen Yaqub – for their consistent encouragement and support; thank you for being there for me. To my teacher, mentor, coach, and servant leader, Safi Khan, for showing me servant leadership in action and exemplifying the behavior of the Prophet Muhammad, may peace and blessings of God be upon him. I extend my sincere gratitude to my dissertation chair, respected Dr. Kriesta Watson, whose constant encouragement helped me get through many tough times during this process. Thank you for supporting me during my difficulties and for celebrating my achievements. Many thanks to my secondary advisor, Dr. Richard Milter, for his insightful comments and feedback. I cannot thank enough two of my most respected Professors and mentors: Dr. Leslie Dinauer, my program chair, and Dr. Marcia Bouchard, SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 4 who were instrumental in providing me the encouragement and support to start the program, and to follow it through. To the members of my cohort, thank you for your constructive feedback and encouragement, always! Last but not least, to Dr. Rhonda Jones, one of my esteemed Professors in my Master’s program, whose continuous and frequent encouragement during our Statistics course sparked my interest to pursue this Doctorate degree. SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 5 Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................10 Problem Statement and Significance .................................................................................10 The Role of School Leadership in Job Satisfaction .......................................................13 Study Purpose and Rationale .........................................................................................14 Importance to Management ............................................................................................14 Definitions of Key Terms ..................................................................................................15 Servant Leadership .........................................................................................................15 Job Satisfaction ..............................................................................................................17 Relevance of Variables for Dissertation.........................................................................18 Study Scope and Assumptions .......................................................................................19 Organization of Dissertation ..........................................................................................20 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................21 General Positive Outcomes ............................................................................................22 Organizational Citizenship Behavior .............................................................................23 Organizational Commitment ..........................................................................................25 Employee Satisfaction ....................................................................................................26 Servant Leadership – Job Satisfaction Correlation in Educational Institutions .............27 Underlying Theoretical Mechanisms .................................................................................32 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 6 Servant Leadership (Robert Greenleaf)..........................................................................33 Self-Determination Theory (Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan) .................................36 Unexplained Aspects of Servant Leadership – Job Satisfaction Relationship ...............38 Summary ............................................................................................................................40 Chapter 3: Research Methodology.....................................................................................42 Importance of Evidence-Based Management ....................................................................42 Importance of Systematic Reviews ....................................................................................45 Justification for the Selection of Systematic Review for the Present Research ................47 Steps for Conducting the Systematic Review ....................................................................48 Engage Stakeholders ......................................................................................................49 Summary ............................................................................................................................69 Chapter 4: Findings ............................................................................................................70 Descriptive Analysis ......................................................................................................70 Results of Thematic Synthesis .......................................................................................76 Additional Themes .........................................................................................................80 Summary ............................................................................................................................80 Chapter 5: Discussion, Implications, and Conclusion .......................................................81 Cultural and Religious Contexts of Schools ......................................................................81 Servant Leader Behaviors with Strongest Correlation with Job Satisfaction ....................82 Values People .................................................................................................................82 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 7 Builds Community .........................................................................................................83 Provides Leadership .......................................................................................................86 Shares Leadership: A Striking Result ............................................................................86 Implications for Management ............................................................................................88 Summary ............................................................................................................................89 Recommendations for Future Research .........................................................................91 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................93 References ..........................................................................................................................94 APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................121 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 8 List of Tables Table 1: Mapping of Servant Leader Characteristics and Behaviors to Laub’s (1999) Model ............................................................................................................................... 66 Table 2: Cultural Contexts of Included Studies ................................................................ 71 Table 3: Religious Affiliations of Schools in Included Studies ........................................ 72 Table 4: Servant Leadership Models Used in Included Studies ....................................... 73 Table 5: Descriptive Analysis of Included Primary Studies ............................................. 75 Table 6: Servant Leader Behaviors and their Correlation with Job Satisfaction, With References to Primary Studies (Sorted by Strongest Correlation).................................... 77 Table 7: Most Strongly Correlated Servant Leader Behaviors with Job Satisfaction (Second Round After Mapping to Laub’s Model) ............................................................ 79 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 9 List of Figures Figure 1. The Servant Leadership Virtuous Cycle of Service ...........................................39 Figure 2. The Four Elements of EGMgt. ...........................................................................43 Figure 3. A conceptual framework based on CIMO framework. ......................................53 Figure 4. First stage of coding in NVivo. ..........................................................................60 Figure 5. Examples of the generation of nodes in stage 1 of the coding process. .............62 Figure 6. Examples of the generation of analytical themes in stage 3 of the coding process...............................................................................................................................67 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 10 Chapter 1: Introduction One of the biggest assets that a school has is its faculty and staff. Their satisfaction and commitment can improve the bottom line of any school, namely student performance. With the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act ("No Child Left Behind," n.d.), schools across the United States must show sustained improvements in their students’ academic performance. At the same time, the increased job dissatisfaction among school employees and the resulting spike in turnover rates have a negative effect on student performance, which can lead to long-term societal and economic impacts. Among several factors, school leadership plays a vital role in employee job satisfaction. The present researcher proposed to investigate the effect of servant leadership on employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. In particular, this research explores specific servant leader behaviors that have the strongest positive correlation with job satisfaction. This chapter is organized as follows. First, an introduction to the management problem and its significance to educational leaders are discussed. Next, the purpose of the study and its rationale are presented. Next, definitions of key terms in this research are reviewed. Finally, the research question guiding this study is presented and discussed. A brief discussion on the organization of this dissertation and summary conclude this chapter. Problem Statement and Significance Due to the demanding and challenging nature of the teaching profession, many teachers become dissatisfied with their jobs and pursue other careers. Teacher satisfaction in the United States dropped to the lowest level in 25 years in 2013, with only 39% of the teachers satisfied with their jobs (Strauss, 2013). Teacher dissatisfaction SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 11 leads to high absenteeism and turnover (Hulpia, Devos, & Rosseel, 2009). According to Donaldson and Johnson (2011), about 1,000 teachers leave their profession every day. Hudson (2009) reported that between 40 and 50 percent of the teachers leave the teaching profession after their first year. Mertler (2002) found that if given the opportunity to select a career again, 36% of the teachers said they would not choose to become a teacher again. Ingersoll (1999) noted that many teachers leave their jobs because of dissatisfaction with their jobs. Teachers play a critical role in educating and shaping the minds of the young generation. Hence, such high rates of dissatisfaction and resulting turnover pose a significant problem for educational leaders. The high rates of dissatisfaction and the resulting high employee turnover carry substantial costs for school districts. When teachers leave, they take with them their knowledge and experience of instructional strategies, students’ learning styles, and training (Chuong, 2008). In short, “institutional memory is lost” (Ronfeldt, Loeb & Wyckoff, 2013, p. 1). The costs of turnover among teachers include time spent on exit interviews, finding temporary or long-term substitutes, recruitment of new teachers, and training and professional development (Levy, Joy, Ellis, Jablonski, & Karelitz, 2012). Employee turnover costs the U.S. upwards of $7 billion annually (NCTAF, 2011). This large amount of money takes away from what can be spent on supplemental instructional resources, building better educational facilities, hiring special education teachers, etc., all of which can improve the quality of education for students. Teachers’ dissatisfaction with their jobs and high turnover has a negative effect on school effectiveness and students’ academic performance. According to a longitudinal SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 12 study conducted in New York, high teacher turnover rates have a negative effect on student performance (Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Guin (2004) found that schools with higher teacher turnover had lower student achievement. Moreover, Sawchuk (2012) concluded that teacher turnover is harmful to students’ performance. When teachers are dissatisfied with their jobs and leave their profession, they are often replaced with newer, less experienced teachers, and thus, the quality of instruction and student performance decreases. On the other hand, when teachers are satisfied with their jobs, it improves the quality of instruction and student achievement. Reed (1987) found that teachers’ job satisfaction is positively related to school effectiveness and success, and leads to high academic performance and achievement among students. Teacher job satisfaction was found to be positively correlated with students’ reading growth (Banerjee, Stearns, Moller, & Mickelson, 2017). Teachers’ attitude towards their job and their morale tremendously affect the academic achievement of students (Chambliss, 2013). When teachers have high morale and are satisfied with their jobs, they pass this excitement and satisfaction on to students who, in turn, perform better in their academics. Improved student performance can have far-reaching economic and societal effects. According to a study conducted by McKinsey and Company (2009), if existing student achievement gaps were closed, the yearly gross domestic product of the US could be improved by billions of dollars. If all students in the United States achieved at least a basic level of proficiency in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) – often known as the “Nation’s Report Card” – the national GDP of the U.S. would SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 13 increase by $32 trillion (Hanushek, Ruhose, & Woessmann, 2016). On the other hand, the existing gaps in student achievement “impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession” (McKinsey & Company, 2009, p. 5). In addition, low student achievement is correlated with an increase in delinquent behavior (Hoffmann, Erickson & Spence, 2013; Savolainen, Hughes, Mason, Hurtig, Ebeling, Moilanen, & Taanila, 2012). Improving teacher job satisfaction and decreasing turnover can improve student performance, which in turn can have long-term economic and societal effects. The Role of School Leadership in Job Satisfaction School leadership plays a vital role in job satisfaction. In a study involving elementary school teachers, Eldred (2010) found that the perceived leadership style of principals had a significant positive correlation with teachers’ job satisfaction. Hulpia et al. (2009) found that leader support had a strong correlation with teachers' job satisfaction. According to Ladd (2011), school leadership is the most salient dimension that results in teachers’ decision to leave schools. Moreover, Hudson (2009) conducted a meta-analysis to explore the reasons behind lack of job satisfaction and high attrition rates among teachers from 1983 to 2005. He concluded that lack of administrative support was one of the primary reasons for lack of job satisfaction among teachers. Though there are several factors that may affect job satisfaction, school leadership plays a vital role in making teachers feel satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs. SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 14 Study Purpose and Rationale Teachers are one of the most important assets of a school. Given that they have a strong influence on student performance, it is important to ensure that good teachers remain satisfied with their jobs and continue working in their profession to shape the young minds of our society. School leadership plays a pivotal role in teachers’ satisfaction with their jobs. Of the various styles of leadership, servant leadership has been shown to have a strong and positive correlation with teachers’ job