Equality in the workplace: Examining the viability of antidiscrimination policy to foster an inclusive organizational culture

This dissertation responded to a perceived need for organizational development of the inclusion of gay men and lesbians in the workplace and examined reasons for an inclusive organizational culture. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the relationship between antidiscrimination policies and an inclusive workforce. This dissertation also focused on antidiscrimination workplace policies that, if enforced by management, might be responsible for the development of inclusive work environments. Also examined in this dissertation was compliance with workplace policies for the purpose of improving productivity and morale, particularly in regard to gay and lesbian employees. In this dissertation, gays and lesbians were considered one group since the Systematic Review of the Literature showed that gay men and lesbians were often exposed to similar types of exclusive discrimination in the workplace. Concepts and practices such as organizational change, management approaches, techniques, workplace behavior, sexual orientation disclosure, and out-group identification were addressed to help establish their relationship to the implementation of workplace antidiscrimination policies focused on gay men and lesbians.Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE Equality in the workplace: Examining the viability of antidiscrimination policy to foster an inclusive organizational culture Gia’Donna Maria Nichols-Holmes A thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE ii Table of Contents List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... iiv List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ v Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vi Dedication .................................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... viii Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature .................................................. 1 Problem Context (Statement and significance of the problem) ................................................ 1 Importance to Management ...................................................................................................... 3 Organizational Culture and Change .................................................................................... 5 Workplace Antidiscrimination Policies and Management Practices .................................. 9 Introducing Antidiscrimination Policies to Change Organizational Culture .................... 10 Organizational Justice and Management’s Compliance with Antidiscrimination Policy 11 Sexual Orientation Disclosure .......................................................................................... 13 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 15 Propositions............................................................................................................................ 15 Definition of Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 16 Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................. 19 Chapter Two: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 21 Purpose of Dissertation ........................................................................................................... 21 Discussion of Evidence Based Research ................................................................................ 22 Justification for Using the EBR Method for a Management Based Dissertation ................... 23 The Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 24 Explanation of Methodology .................................................................................................. 25 Factors for Inclusion or Exclusion of Studies (Identification of Relevancy) ......................... 26 Thematic Synthesis: Characteristics and Coding .................................................................... 28 Discussion of the Use of the Expert Panel .............................................................................. 30 Summary of Chapter ............................................................................................................... 33 Chapter Three: Systematic Literature Review .............................................................................. 34 Organizational Culture and Change ........................................................................................ 35 Workplace Antidiscrimination Policies and Management Practices ...................................... 57 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE iii Introducing Antidiscrimination Policies to Change Organizational Culture .......................... 84 Organizational Justice and Management’s Compliance with Antidiscrimination Policy ...... 95 Sexual Orientation Disclosure .............................................................................................. 117 Chapter Conclusions: How the Findings Supported Research Questions ............................ 133 Support for Research Question 2. ................................................................................... 138 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 141 Chapter Four: Analysis and Discussion ...................................................................................... 142 Analysis of the Research Questions ...................................................................................... 142 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 146 Studies Opposing the Inclusion of Gay and Lesbian Workers ............................................. 146 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 147 Chapter Five: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 148 Theoretical Lens.................................................................................................................... 148 Management Practices that Foster and Sustain Inclusion in the Workplace (Findings)....... 148 Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications and Trends ................................................................... 154 Overall Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 154 Implications for Management ............................................................................................... 155 Recommendations for Management ..................................................................................... 156 Diversity Training ........................................................................................................... 156 Negative Responses to Diversity Training ..................................................................... 158 Management Style and the “Reflected Best Self” .......................................................... 160 Conclusions for Implications for Management............................................................... 162 Emerging Trends ................................................................................................................... 162 Limitations and Areas for Future Research .......................................................................... 164 Threats to Validity .......................................................................................................... 164 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 165 Suggestions for Future Research .................................................................................... 165 Final Summary ...................................................................................................................... 166 References .................................................................................................................................. 168 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 177 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 185 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE iv List of Tables Table 1 Number of Articles Reviewed for each Theme ……………………………………… . 22 Table 2 Initial Studies Considered for Inclusion .......................................................................... 27 Table 3 Examples of Employee Voice. ......................................................................................... 60 Table 4 Voice Mechanisms for LGBT Employees. ...................................................................... 61 Table 5 Affirming Organizational Policies Evaluated by Button( 2001). .................................... 66 Table 6 Cox’s Six-Dimensional Adaptation of Gordon's framework. .......................................... 73 Table 7 Evaluative Criteria from the Assessment Instrument. ..................................................... 90 Table 8 Herek’s Scale of Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men. ............................................ 98 Table 9 Support for Research Q1 ................................................................................................ 133 Table 10 Support for Research Q2…………………………………………………………….. 137 Table 11 U.S. States that Had Sexual Orientation Antidiscrimination Laws as of 2016. .......... 154 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE v List of Figures Figure 1.The four sources of evidence in evidence-based management ...................................... 23 Figure 2. PRISMA diagram representing the flow of citations reviewed before exclusion.. ....... 27 Figure 3.Typology of negative deviant workplace behavior. ....................................................... 41 Figure 4: Muller’s Conceptual Framework of Organizational Types and Other Factors in Managing Diversity ...................................................................................................................... 91 Figure 5: Human rights commissions and public policy ............................................................ 116 Figure 6. Supports for the Development of Workplace Equality. ............................................. 150 Figure 7: Factors that Help to Sustain Workplace Equality. ...................................................... 152 Figure 8: Conceptual Framework. .............................................................................................. 153 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE vi Abstract This dissertation responded to a perceived need for organizational development of the inclusion of gay men and lesbians in the workplace and examined reasons for an inclusive organizational culture. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the relationship between antidiscrimination policies and an inclusive workforce. This dissertation also focused on antidiscrimination workplace policies that, if enforced by management, might be responsible for the development of inclusive work environments. Also examined in this dissertation was compliance with workplace policies for the purpose of improving productivity and morale, particularly in regard to gay and lesbian employees. In this dissertation, gays and lesbians were considered one group since the Systematic Review of the Literature showed that gay men and lesbians were often exposed to similar types of exclusive discrimination in the workplace. Concepts and practices such as organizational change, management approaches, techniques, workplace behavior, sexual orientation disclosure, and out-group identification were addressed to help establish their relationship to the implementation of workplace antidiscrimination policies focused on gay men and lesbians. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE vii Dedication This dissertation is devoted to anyone who has ever experienced isolation, hostility, and discrimination -- covert or otherwise -- based on who they are. It is my hope that one day fellow man will learn to live with and love one another regardless of economic status, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, religion - or anything else about us humans that may seem to set us apart. This dissertation is also dedicated to my steadfast supporters. The other Mrs. Nichols-Holmes - Vanessa, and my sweet Sylvester -- who were both there throughout this journey. This work is also dedicated to my son Damien who is learning to navigate this life, and who in turn will help others to find their way as well. Above all else, Thank You to God - I have never had a doubt that You have been here with me all along. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE viii Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge everyone for their support and help throughout the life of this project. Drs. James Gelatt and Kay Edwards, thank you for your time and dedication to this project. I feel honored to have been a recipient of such invaluable advice. Cynthia Thomes, who always seemed to be available when I had library related research questions. Cynthia's research tips were indispensable and applicable to innumerous projects. I would also like to thank Dr. Thomas Mierzwa who helped to lay the foundation for this dissertation and whose recommendations can be seen throughout. Tom inspired me to keep going and I am forever grateful for his advice and commitment to the Doctor of Management Program and students like me. Monica Graham, my longtime colleague and friend, thank you for all your support DM related and beyond! Finally, I would be remiss if I did not thank those who supported me by providing feedback that helped to shape this work. Pastor Dwayne Johnson, Mr. Kareem Murphy, Dr. Koehne - THANK YOU. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature This dissertation utilized an evidence based approach to examine the inclusion of gay men and lesbians in the workplace from the perspectives of compliance with antidiscrimination policies, management practices, workplace behavior, social and structural justice, organizational culture and change, and sexual orientation disclosure. Its purpose was to examine the relationships between antidiscrimination policies and an inclusive workforce in the United States. Due to a gap in research of gay and lesbian workers in the US, this dissertation also utilized relevant scholarly literature published between the years 1970 and 2015, from Australia, Canada, Sweden, and the UK, and also included studies that represented workers from other minority groups. Problem Context (Statement and significance of the problem) Preceding the high profile issues surrounding equality for lesbians and gays in the United States and other countries, the lack of organizational justice leading to the discrimination of minorities, including blacks, women, and persons with disabilities, was -- and still is -- a great concern to organizations because of their impact on organizational culture, productivity, and innovation. According to Greenberg (2009) organizational justice is the perceived fairness of how resources are distributed, the equity relative to how procedures are applied in decision making, and how organizational outcomes and procedures are communicated throughout the workplace. According to Cropanzano, Bowen, and Gilliland (2007), in the presence of organizational justice both the organization and the employee benefit through “greater trust and commitment, improved job performance, more helpful citizenship behaviors, improved customer satisfaction, Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 2 and diminished conflict” (p. 34). The presence or lack of organizational justice may be contingent on an organization’s culture. According to Klie (2008), organizational culture may affect workplace behavior because it influences outcomes related to productivity, profit, morale, and behavior, and provides the backdrop for how norms develop. Klie (2008) contended that in some cases it is necessary to reconstruct the culture in order to create a sense of equality for all workers, and that in order to change the culture, management might first examine the whole organization as well as successes or failures within the context of previous changes that have been attempted. Nag, Corley, and Gioia argued that “organizational identity, knowledge, and practice” stunts the acquisition of new knowledge and the possibility of strategic transformation, therefore diverse methods to change the culture may be needed (2007, p. 821). Organizational culture and change will be further examined in the systematic literature chapter of this dissertation. Antidiscrimination policies may be implemented for the purpose of helping to change organizational culture. Since at least 1972 to the present day (2016), equal employment opportunity legislation has been developed in the United States to decrease instances of discrimination against minority groups and to help foster social justice. Social justice can be defined as compassion, social equality, harmony within diversity, and inclusion (Normore & Jean-Marie, 2008). Much has been studied and written about management, diversity management, and social justice relative to gender, race, and disability. Studies are not as prevalent on similar issues surrounding discrimination policies that might encourage or prevent lesbians and gays from being included in the workplace (Button, 2004; Tuten and August, 2006; Colgan, Creegany, McKearney, and Wright, T. 2007). Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 3 This dissertation was based on the assumption that there is a research gap in the U.S. literature with reference to lesbian and gay workers in regard to policy development, and/or management’s compliance with and implementation of antidiscrimination policies. Further, there was not an abundance of research found that examined the importance of management practices that helped to represent this group as part of the effort to foster an inclusive workplace. For the latter reason, this dissertation also utilized studies that represented workers from other minority groups in Australia, Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. This dissertation examined the inclusion of gay and lesbian workers in organizations, and how the enforcement and compliance of antidiscrimination policies by management may be able to help to achieve the goal of reducing discrimination toward this group. Along with affirming management practices, this dissertation sought to determine if there was a cogent connection between antidiscrimination policy enforcement and compliance by management, and the inclusion of gay and lesbian employees in the workplace. Again, to fill the gap in gay and lesbian employee related literature, other studies were used to show the types of management practices that have been shown to be effective in the integration of minority groups into organizations. Importance to Management Gay and lesbian workplace discrimination has been observed to be on a continuum, both in recognition and antidiscrimination laws that seek to address it. Burge (2009) claimed that gay and lesbian workers are probably the most stigmatized demographic in the United States. Hedgepeth (1979) said that U.S. courts would not entertain discrimination cases up to the 1970s, including those based on same sex gender preference because the courts affirmed that government and private sector employers had a right to “eliminate immoral influences in the workplace” (p. 67). According to Levine and Leonard (1984) gay men and lesbians claimed that Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 4 they were terminated, not hired or refused job mobility within their organizations because of their sexual orientation. As of 2016, gay and lesbian employees in the U.S. were not protected from discrimination by federal laws and 29 states did not prohibit sexual orientation discrimination (Human Rights Campaign, 2015). Even beyond lack of protection against workplace discrimination and inequitable work experiences for gay and lesbian employees, there are strong arguments for developing a diverse and inclusive workforce. According to Roberson (2006), psychological barriers, such as inequitable treatment, can keep employees from contributing to work teams and their organization, whereas workplace inclusion can help remove these barriers. Allen and Montgomery (2001) applied Lewin-Schein’s change model to illustrate the qualities of strategic organizational change. One of their findings was that the more diverse the staff of an organization is encouraged to be,