Follower voice: Influence on leader behavior

Leadership and management theories, even more progressive ones such as transformational leadership and leader-member exchange, acknowledge the role of leaders in influencing followers to take actions they normally would not take alone. These theories are largely leader-centric and view the relationship from a hierarchical and unidirectional perspective. This dissertation examines the relationship between followers and leaders from a follower-centric point of view. The purpose is to determine the levels in which and to which followers influence leaders' behavior and decision-making processes. One of the ways followers attempt to influence leaders is through the exertion of voice. In this study, voice exertion levels and the presence of experience, knowledge, and achievement factors are analyzed using a mixed methods research approach and analyzing 27 studies conducted over a 40-year period by notable academic and scientific researchers. The relationship between follower voice exertion levels are linked to the presence or absence of the attainment of experience, knowledge, and achievement that each actor acquires over time. The objective is to determine whether followers exert more voice and influence over leaders as experience, knowledge, and achievement grow over time. The results of this study reveal that followers exert more influence over leaders than is acknowledged in both traditional and progressive leadership theories, including transformational and leader-member exchange theories. Followers do so through the exertion of voice, which can take various forms and occur at various levels. Follower voice exertion and therefore follower influence on leader behavior and decision-making is higher when the actors acquire experience and knowledge together.ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation FOLLOWER VOICE: INFLUENCE ON LEADER BEHAVIOR Al Morasso, Doctor of Management, 2011 Dissertation Directed By Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa, Graduate School, University of Maryland University College Leadership and management theories, even more progressive ones such as transformational leadership and leader-member exchange, acknowledge the role of leaders in influencing followers to take actions they normally would not take alone. These theories are largely leader-centric and view the relationship from a hierarchical and unidirectional perspective. This dissertation examines the relationship between followers and leaders from a follower-centric point of view. The purpose is to determine the levels in which and to which followers influence leaders’ behavior and decision-making processes. One of the ways followers attempt to influence leaders is through the exertion of voice. In this study, voice exertion levels and the presence of experience, knowledge, and achievement factors are analyzed using a mixed methods research approach and analyzing 27 studies conducted over a 40-year period by notable academic and scientific researchers. The relationship between follower voice exertion levels are linked to the presence or absence of the attainment of experience, knowledge, and achievement that each actor acquires over time. The objective is to determine whether followers exert more voice and influence over leaders as experience, knowledge, and achievement grow over time. The results of this study reveal that followers exert more influence over leaders than is acknowledged in both traditional and progressive leadership theories, including transformational and leader-member exchange theories. Followers do so through the exertion of voice, which can take various forms and occur at various levels. Follower voice exertion and therefore follower influence on leader behavior and decision-making is higher when the actors acquire experience and knowledge together. Key words: followers, followership, influence, leaders, leadership, power, voice FOLLOWER VOICE: INFLUENCE ON LEADER BEHAVIOR By Alfred Morasso Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2011 Advisory Committee Dr. Thomas Mierzwa, Chair Dr. Yung-Chi Sung Dr. Michael A. Evanchik © Copyright by Al Morasso 2011 FOLLOWER VOICE ii DEDICATION To Kristine, who never wavered in her support of me in this endeavor and never lost faith that I could complete the work. FOLLOWER VOICE iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not have been completed without the help and support of family, friends, co-workers, cohort members, and members of University of Maryland University College and New School University faculty. To my wife, Kristine—thank you for the years of sacrifice. The faith you had in me gave me the confidence I needed. To my daughters, Elizabeth and Sarah——your support has also been of great value to me. I have had the privilege of working with several people at Educational Testing Service who volunteered to critique my writing several times along the way. Special thanks must be given to Richard Roberts, Ph.D.; Catherine McClellan, Ph.D.; T. J. Elliott; and Marla Barr, Ph.D. for their feedback and guidance. Your help has been invaluable. The journey to completion is one I shared with several members of my University of Maryland University College cohort. Thanks to all of them, especially Martha Reider. We have grown together and it has been a pleasure participating with and learning from all of them. There are also a number of university faculty members who taught and advised me since I started the Doctor of Management program in 2007. I thank University of Maryland University College faculty members Dr. Thomas Mierzwa; Yung-Chi Sung, Ph.D.; and Michael Evanchik, Ph.D. for their countless hours of advising. It was Claudine SchWeber, Ph.D. who fostered my interest in looking at leadership from a different perspective. Finally, I also acknowledge Edward Powers, Ed.D., a graduate faculty member at The New School, for inspiring me to continue my education and feeding my passion for learning more about human resources management, leadership, and organizational behavior. FOLLOWER VOICE iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEM ......................................... 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 Management Problem ................................................................................................................. 1 Research Question ...................................................................................................................... 3 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................... 4 Significance of Study ...................................................................................................................... 5 Organization of Dissertation Chapters .......................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 13 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13 Leaders Need Followers ............................................................................................................... 13 Leaders Fill Follower Needs ......................................................................................................... 18 Leaders and Followers Have Specific Roles, Characteristics, and Traits..................................... 23 Positive Leader Characteristics and Traits ................................................................................ 24 Negative Leader Characteristics and Traits .............................................................................. 26 Leadership Trait—Charisma ..................................................................................................... 26 Follower Characteristics and Traits .......................................................................................... 31 Power Shifting After Needs Are Fulfilled ................................................................................ 32 Power and Influence Shift Between Leaders and Followers .................................................... 34 Follower Voice.......................................................................................................................... 34 Complexity Exists in the Relationship Between Leaders and Followers ..................................... 36 Increases in Follower Influence ................................................................................................ 42 FOLLOWER VOICE v The Dyadic Relationship Between Leader and Follower ......................................................... 45 Transformational Leadership .................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER 3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL ....................................................................................... 50 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 50 Characteristics and Traits .............................................................................................................. 50 Followers and Followership .......................................................................................................... 51 Leaders and Leadership ................................................................................................................ 53 Relationship Between Leaders and Followers .............................................................................. 55 Conceptual Model—Shift From Leader-Centric to Follower-Centric Power Orientation ........... 58 Thesis Statement ........................................................................................................................... 66 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 67 Research Approach ....................................................................................................................... 67 Research Design........................................................................................................................... 68 Study Set-Up ................................................................................................................................ 71 The Research Studies .................................................................................................................... 72 Systematic Review Construct ................................................................................................... 75 Evaluation Framework .............................................................................................................. 78 Research Study Analysis............................................................................................................... 80 Collecting Data ......................................................................................................................... 80 Analyzing Data ......................................................................................................................... 81 Concept Integration ....................................................................................................................... 81 Shape Findings .......................................................................................................................... 81 Threats to Validity .................................................................................................................... 81 FOLLOWER VOICE vi Researcher Bias Validity Threat ............................................................................................... 82 Construct Validity Threats ........................................................................................................ 83 Internal Validity Threats ........................................................................................................... 83 CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION ......................................... 84 Research Study Data Analysis and Results .................................................................................. 84 Analysis of Research Studies .................................................................................................... 84 Analysis of Voice Levels—Findings ........................................................................................ 89 Factor Combination Frequency................................................................................................. 91 Operational Definitions ............................................................................................................. 94 Experience and Knowledge Factor Re-Evaluation ................................................................... 96 Relation of Experience and Knowledge Factors to Voice Exertion Levels ................................ 100 Results and Relationship to Transformational Leadership and Leader-Member Exchange Theories.................................................................................................................................. 104 Study Weakness ...................................................................................................................... 106 Summary of Analysis .............................................................................................................. 106 Experience, Knowledge, and Achievement Factors ................................................................... 107 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK .......................................................... 109 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 109 Implications for Theory .............................................................................................................. 111 Implications for Leader-Member Exchange Theory ............................................................... 111 Implications for Transformational Leadership Theory ........................................................... 113 Implications for Practice of Management ................................................................................... 114 Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................................... 116 FOLLOWER VOICE vii REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 1199 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... 1311 FOLLOWER VOICE viii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Follower and Leader Characteristics and Traits—The Dyadic DNA .......................... 55 Table 3.2 Relative Voice and Influence Exertion Levels ............................................................ 65 Table 4.1 Research Methodology, Approach, and Design Process ............................................. 70 Table 4.2 Keyword Search Table................................................................................................. 74 Table 4.3 Systematic Review Construct Elements ...................................................................... 75 Table 4.4 Evaluation Framework ................................................................................................. 79 Table 5.1 Follower and Voice Exertion Levels and Frequencies ................................................ 87 Table 5.2 Factor Combination Frequency ................................................................................... 92 Table 5.3 Factor Frequencies of Individual Studies in the Literature.......................................... 94 Table 5.4 Factor Combination Frequency—Re-evaluation ......................................................... 98 Table 5.5 Factor Combination Frequency—Comparison of Original (I) and Re-Evaluated (II) Assignments .................................................................................... 99 Table 5.6 Factors and Voice Level Frequencies for Follower and Leader ................................ 101 FOLLOWER VOICE ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Condition A—No voice adjustment and high variance in strength of voice between leader and follower. ...................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 3.2. Condition B - Moderate voice adjustment and reduce variance in strength of voice between leader and follower. ........................................................................................................ 61 Figure 3.3. Condition C—Leader and follower alignment of voice strength. ............................. 62 Figure 3.4. Conceptual model Voice and influence level continuum. ......................................... 63 Figure 5.1. Follower and leader voice levels. .............................................................................. 90 Figure 5.2. Follower and leader voice levels——revised. ........................................................... 91 Figure 5.3. Factor combination distribution. ............................................................................... 93 Figure 5.4. Factor combination distribution change—Original vs. re-evaluated. ..................... 100 Figure 5.5. Experience and knowledge factors and follower voice exertion level. ................... 103 Figure 5.6. Experience and knowledge factors and leader voice exertion level. ....................... 103 FOLLOWER VOICE x FOLLOWER VOICE 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEM Introduction The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the leader-follower relationship from the follower perspective, especially how followers influence leader behavior and decision-making. The analysis focuses on determining the extent to which followers influence leaders and how followers affect the decision-making process in organizations. During the research and analyses processes, components of several management and leadership theories are examined to determine whether they accurately reflect the follower experience and perceptions of the relationship with leaders. Of particular interest are influence and power exchanges between leader and follower. In addition, data from 27 research studies in which dyadic relationships exist between leaders and followers are analyzed to determine the extent to which followers influence leaders. The analyses of both theory and research include terms, characteristics, and traits describing leaders and followers and whether these descriptors adequately reflect the dynamics of the relationship between leaders and followers. Management Problem The complexity of the relationship between leaders and followers is affected by sociological, economic, political, psychological, and other factors. These factors are not unlike those that have influenced behavior since humankind emerged. Leader and follower roles emerged as a result of societal evolution. “Humans evolved as group-living animals because there was safety in numbers in a hostile environment that had plenty of predators and a limited food supply” (Winsborough, Kaiser, & Hogan, 2009, p. 9). To better ensure survival of the group, individual members adapted their behaviors so these individuals can work together. FOLLOWER VOICE 2 “Group coordination facilitated by efficient decision-making (where a trusted and competent individual took the initiative and others chose to go along) proved to be the most effective solution” (Winsborough et al., 2009, p. 9). From this collective nature, leaders continued to emerge and evolve. Structured societies were built and continue to be built upon the abilities of one person or group of people to influence behaviors of others—individuals or groups who allow themselves to be influenced to do things they would not normally do on their own. This relationship grew out of necessity. Social coordination is best facilitated by a decision-making process in which one individual initiates a plan and others agree to pursue it (Winsborough et al., 2009). Without a leader to plan and coordinate the activities of the group, attainment of goals and objectives required for the group’s survival could be threatened. Traditionally, these influencers have been referred to as leaders, while those who are led are referred to as followers. Supporting the assertion that the relationship between leader and follower is complex reflects the reality that there are no real clear definitions of leader or follower. For example, the word followers can describe those in corporate settings who are led by managers or executives who possess the authority to delegate work and have the ultimate accountability for results. They come together in a formal way, with a common purpose or objective to achieve a goal very often under the direction of someone in a superior position. “Trade unions, governments, business corporations, political parties, and the like are formal structures in the sense that they represent rationally ordered instruments for the achievement of stated goals” (Selznick