Renewability of energy resources, energy vectors, and energy technologies for mobility

By understanding and using the concepts of an "open cycle" and a "closed cycle" of resources, the sustainability of an energy system can be assessed. Key to setting up sustainable energy systems is the use of renewable energy resources with the integration of energy vectors in the flow chain. Three important energy vectors-hydrogen, electricity, and heat-exchanging materials-can be integrated in an energy system through sustainable energy engineering, resulting in a zero-emission conversion technology in the final use. The dual condition of "zero consumption, zero emission" is necessary for sustainability. From this perspective, the difference between consumption and emissions of an electric/electrified vehicle versus a gasoline vehicle of the same segment, along with an economic analysis, is shown in a case study