Engaged citizens? Political participation and social engagement among youth, women, minorities, and migrants

Many studies have revealed that conventional forms of political participation, especially among young people, women, minorities and migrants, are currently in decline (e.g., Blais & Dobrzynska, 1998; Franklin, 2002; International IDEA, 2004; Putnam, 2000). However, two different explanations have been put forward to explain this phenomenon: some authors argue that political apathy and alienation are increasing, whereas others argue that a shift is taking place from traditional forms of political participation to voluntary and less direct participatory activities using new means of social/political communication (Forbrig, 2005; Zukin, Keeter, Andolina, Jenkins & Delli Carpini, 2006). Current theories about political participation and social engagement take into account factors at the macro level (e.g., historical, institutional, political, demographic), the social level (e.g., family, school, peer group) and the micro level (e.g., collective efficacy, self-efficacy, trust) (Dalton & Klingemann, 2007). However, the social and psychological processes that mediate the influence of these factors in promoting or hindering participation are not well understood. In particular the following research questions deserve more attention and analysis from theoretical and empirical points of view: What does it mean for young people today to be a citizen and to be engaged? Is there still a gender gap in political and civic participation? Are there differences in patterns of participation between ethnic/national groups? When and under what conditions does individual latent participation become manifest participation? What are the opportunity structures for effective and influential civic engagement and political participation? What are the best predictors of participation, and how can these predictors be harnessed to enhance levels of participation