Understanding Physical Activity Engagement in Students: Skills, Values, and Hope. [Comprender la participación de la actividad física en los escolares: Competencias, valores y esperanza].

Understanding why kids continue to engage or not to engage in physical activity is important to all practitioners. Student engagement becomes central to how teachers plan and deliver various types of learning experiences in school gyms and athletic fields. Understanding the complexity of this issue has been addressed through various forms of research as well as trial and error attempts by those who work with kids on a daily basis. This article attempts to help clarify our understanding of the factors that impact the motivational levels of children and youth when they are exposed to various physical activity learning experiences. We first describe the historical roots of research that have looked at life in the gym. Next, we provide three aspects of examining factors that influence physical activity engagement in school programs. One aspect is how skill level and perceived competence influence engagement in students. Following is a discussion of the personal and psychological factors that impact engagement. Specifically, we examine the values that students have toward physical activity programs and their engagement motive. We also describe the how kids' sense of hope for doing well in physical activity mediate their levels of engagement in various achievement situations. We conclude with some important considerations for doing research on children's and youth's thoughts and perceptions during physical activity engagement. ResumenComprender por qué los niños continúan participando o no, en las actividades físicas es de gran interés para todos los profesionales. El compromiso de los escolares es un elemento central para los profesores a la hora de planificar y ofrecer diferentes tipos de experiencias de aprendizaje en los gimnasios escolares y en los campos deportivos. La complejidad de este tema se ha abordado tanto a través de diversas formas de investigación, como mediante ensayo y error, por parte de aquellos que trabajan diariamente en Educación Física. Este artículo intenta ayudar a aclarar nuestra comprensión de los factores que afectan los niveles de motivación de los escolares, cuando están expuestos a diversas experiencias de aprendizaje en educación física. En primer lugar, se describe el origen de la investigación que ha analizado la vida en el gimnasio. A continuación, se presentan tres de los aspectos que influyen en la participación en educación física. En primer lugar, se analiza cómo el nivel de competencia y coordinación, así como la competencia percibida, influyen en el compromiso de los escolares. A continuación, se analizan los factores personales y psicológicos que influyen en dicho compromiso. Específicamente, se examinan los valores que los estudiantes otorgan a los programas de Educación Física y su motivación a participar en ellos. También se describe cómo la esperanza por alcanzar el éxito media en los niveles de participación en diversas situaciones de rendimiento. Se concluye con algunas sugerencias importantes para investigar sobre los pensamientos y percepciones de los niños y jóvenes durante su participación comprometida en Educación Física.https://doi.org/10.5232/ricyde2019.05506References/referenciasAmes, C. (1984). Achievement attributions and self-determination under competitive and individualistic goal structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 478-487. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.76.3.478Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and motivations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 34, 261-271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261Anderson, W. (1980). Analysis of teaching physical education. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby.Anderson, W., & Barrette, G. (1978). What's going on in gym. Descriptive studies of physical education classes. Monograph 1. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice, 25-38.Barnett, A.; Dawes, H., & Morgan, Wilmut, K. (2012). Constraints and facilitators in participation in physical activity in teenagers with developmental coordination disorder: An exploratory interview study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39, 393-403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2012.01376.xBernstein, E.; Gibbone, A., & Lysniak, U. (2013). Competition and considerations: The use of active gaming in physical education class. In A. Cohan & A. Honigsfeld (Eds.). Breaking the mold in education (pp.101-106). NY: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Bernstein, E.; Phillips, S. R., & Silverman, S. (2011). Attitudes and perceptions of middle school students toward competitive activities in physical education class. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 30, 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.30.1.69Brophy, J. (2010). Motivating students to learn. (3rd Ed). New York: Routledge.Brophy J., & Good, T. (1990). Educational psychology (2nd ed.) New York: Longman.Carlson, T. B. (1995). We hate gym: Student alienation from physical education. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 14, 467-477. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.467Castilli, D. M., & Valley, J. A. (2007). Chapter 3: The relationship of physical fitness and motor competence to physical activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 26(4), 358-374. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.26.4.358Chang, H. N., & Jordan, P. W. (2013). Building a culture of Attendance: Schools and afterschool programs together can and should make a difference! In T.K. Peterson's (Ed.) Expanding minds and opportunities (pp. 56-61) Washington, DC: Collaborative.Chen, A. (2015). Operationalizing physical literacy for learners: Embodying the motivation to learn. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(2), 125-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.03.005Chen, S.; Sun, H.; Zhu, X., & Chen, A. (2014). Relationship between motivation and learning and after-school physical activity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 88(4), 468-477. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2014.961054Cohen, A., & Honigsfield, A. (2013). Breaking the mold of education. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Costello, J. A., & Laubach, S. (1978). Student behavior. In W. Anderson and G. Barrette's (Eds.) What's going on in gym? (pp. 11-24). Newton, CT: Motor Skill: Theory into PracticeDiener, C. I., & Dweck, C. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451-462. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.5.451Dudley, D.; Okley, A.; Pearson, P., & Cotton, W. (2011). A systematic review of the effectiveness of physical education and sport interventions targeting physical activity, movement skills and enjoyment of physical activity. European Physical Education Review, 17(3), 353-378. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X11416734Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: BallantineFeguera, R., & An, R. (2017). Motor skill competence and physical activity in preschoolers: A review. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 2(1), 136-146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-016-2102-1Finchum, F. D.; Hokoda, A., & Sanders, R. (1989). Learned helplessness: Test anxiety and academic achievement. Child Development, 60(1), 138-145. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131079Gould, D. (2016). Leadership as a life skill in youth sports. In Nicholas L. Holt's (Ed.) Positive youth development through sport (151-167). NY: Routledge.Graham, G. (1995). Physical education through students' eyes and in students' voice. Introduction. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 364-371. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.364Graham, G. (2015). The fall and rise of physical education. PE Central-What Works in Physical Education (Special Issue), 1-8.Hopple, C., & Graham, G. (1995). What children think, feel, and know about physical fitness testing. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 408-417. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.408Lander, N.; Esther, N.; Morgan, P. J.; Salmon, J., & Barnett, L. M. (2017). Characteristics of teacher training in school-based physical education interventions to improve fundamental movement skills and/or physical activity: A systematic review. Sport Medicine, 47(1), 135-161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0561-6Li, W.; Wright, P.; Rukavina, P., & Pickering, M. (2008). Measuring students' perceptions of personal and social responsibility and its relationship to intrinsic motivation in urban physical education. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 27, 167-178. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.27.2.167Logan, S. W.; Webster, E. K.; Gretchell, N.; Pfeiffer, K. A., & Robinson, L. E. (2015. Relationship between fundamental motor skill competence and physical activity duringchildhood and adolescence: A systematic review. Kinesiology Review, 4(4), 416-426. https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2013-0012Lopes, V.P.; Stodden, D. F., & Rodrigues, L.P. (2017. Effectiveness of physical education to promote motor competence in primary school children. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 22(6), 589-602. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2017.1341474Lopez, S. (2013). Making hope happen in the classroom. Kappa, 5(2), 19-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171309500205Martinek, T. (1996). Fostering hope in youth: A model to explain learned helplessness in physical activity. Quest, 48, 409-421. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1996.10484206Martinek, T. (1997). Myths and realities of motivating kids to learn. Strategies, 10(4), 32-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.1997.10591267Martinek, T. (2017). Enhancing youth development programs through logic model assessment. RICYDE. Revista Internacional de Ciencias del Deporte, 13(49), 302-316.https://doi.org/10.5232/ricyde2017.04908Martinek, T., & Griffith, J. B. (1993). Working with the learned helpless child. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 64(6), 19-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.1993.10609995Martinek, T., & Griffith (1994). Learned helplessness in physical education: A developmental study of causal attributions and task persistence. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 13, 108-122. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.13.2.108Martinek, T., & Ruiz, L.M. (2005). Promoting positive youth development through a values-based sport program. RICYDE. Revista Internacional de Ciencias del Deporte, 1(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.5232/ricyde2005.00101Marton, F. (2015). Necessary conditions of learning. NY: Routledge.Masten, A. S.; Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400005812McIntyre, F.; Chivers, P.; Larkin, D.; Rose, E., & Hands, B. (2015). Exercise can improve physical self-perceptions in adolescents with low motor competence. Human Movement Sciences, 42, 333-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2014.12.003Melendez, A., & Martinek, T. J. (2015). Life after Project Effort: Applying values in aresponsibility-based physical activity program. RICYDE. Revista internacional de Ciencias del Deporte, 41(11), 258-280. https://doi.org/10.5232/ricyde2015.04105Metzler, M. (1989). A review of research on time in sport pedagogy. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 87-103. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.8.2.87Placek, J. (1983). Conceptions of success in teaching: Busy, happy, and good? In T. Templin and J. Olsen's (Eds.) Teaching in Physical Education (pp. 46-56), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Rasco, C. H.; Cheatham, J.B.; Cheatham, S.H., & Phalen, E.M. (2913) Using after-school and summer learning to improve literacy skills. T. Peterson (Ed.). Expanding minds and opportunities (pp.42-48). Washington, DC: Collaborative Communications Group.Sanders, S., & Graham, G. (1995). Kindergarten children's initial experiences in physical education: The relentless persistence for play clashes with the zone of acceptable responses. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 372-383. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.372Schilling, T.; Martinek, T., & Carson, S. (2007). Youth leader’s perceptions of commitment to a responsibility-based physical activity program. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78, 48-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2007.10599403Schon, D. (1987). Enhancing the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.Seligman, M. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press. Siedentop, D. (1991). Developing teaching skills in physical education. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.Siedentop, D.; Tousignant, M., & Parker, M. (1982). Academic learning time-physical education coding manual. Columbus OH: School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Ohio State University.Simonton, S. (2018). Youth workers can navigate in turbulent times. Youth Today, (Winter Issue), 6-8.Stipek, D. (1988). Motivation to learn. Boston: Allyn and BaconVeal, M. L., & Campagnone, N. (1995). How sixth graders perceive skill and effort. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 431-444. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.431Walling, M. D., & Martinek, T. (1995). Learned helplessness: A case study of a middle school student. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 454-466. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.454Zhu, X., & Chen, A. (2013). Adolescent expectancy-value motivation, achievement in physical education and physical activity participation. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 32(3), 287-304. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.32.3.287Understanding why kids continue to engage or not to engage in physical activity is important to all practitioners. Student engagement becomes central to how teachers plan and deliver various types of learning experiences in school gyms and athletic fields. Understanding the complexity of this issue has been addressed through various forms of research as well as trial and error attempts by those who work with kids on a daily basis. This article attempts to help clarify our understanding of the factors that impact the motivational levels of children and youth when they are exposed to various physical activity learning experiences. We first describe the historical roots of research that have looked at life in the gym. Next, we provide three aspects of examining factors that influence physical activity engagement in school programs. One aspect is how skill level and perceived competence influence engagement in students. Following is a discussion of the personal and psychological factors that impact engagement. Specifically, we examine the values that students have toward physical activity programs and their engagement motive. We also describe the how kids' sense of hope for doing well in physical activity mediate their levels of engagement in various achievement situations. We conclude with some important considerations for doing research on children's and youth's thoughts and perceptions during physical activity engagement.ResumenComprender por qué los niños continúan participando o no, en las actividades físicas es de gran interés para todos los profesionales. El compromiso de los escolares es un elemento central para los profesores a la hora de planificar y ofrecer diferentes tipos de experiencias de aprendizaje en los gimnasios escolares y en los campos deportivos. La complejidad de este tema se ha abordado tanto a través de diversas formas de investigación, como mediante ensayo y error, por parte de aquellos que trabajan diariamente en Educación Física. Este artículo intenta ayudar a aclarar nuestra comprensión de los factores que afectan los niveles de motivación de los escolares, cuando están expuestos a diversas experiencias de aprendizaje en educación física. En primer lugar, se describe el origen de la investigación que ha analizado la vida en el gimnasio. A continuación, se presentan tres de los aspectos que influyen en la participación en educación física. En primer lugar, se analiza cómo el nivel de competencia y coordinación, así como la competencia percibida, influyen en el compromiso de los escolares. A continuación, se analizan los factores personales y psicológicos que influyen en dicho compromiso. Específicamente, se examinan los valores que los estudiantes otorgan a los programas de Educación Física y su motivación a participar en ellos. También se describe cómo la esperanza por alcanzar el éxito media en los niveles de participación en diversas situaciones de rendimiento. Se concluye con algunas sugerencias importantes para investigar sobre los pensamientos y percepciones de los niños y jóvenes durante su participación comprometida en Educación Física.https://doi.org/10.5232/ricyde2019.05506References/referenciasAmes, C. (1984). Achievement attributions and self-determination under competitive and individualistic goal structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 478-487. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.76.3.478Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and motivations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 34, 261-271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261Anderson, W. (1980). Analysis of teaching physical education. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby.Anderson, W., & Barrette, G. (1978). What's going on in gym. Descriptive studies of physical education classes. Monograph 1. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice, 25-38.Barnett, A.; Dawes, H., & Morgan, Wilmut, K. (2012). Constraints and facilitators in participation in physical activity in teenagers with developmental coordination disorder: An exploratory interview study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39, 393-403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2012.01376.xBernstein, E.; Gibbone, A., & Lysniak, U. (2013). Competition and considerations: The use of active gaming in physical education class. In A. Cohan & A. Honigsfeld (Eds.). Breaking the mold in education (pp.101-106). NY: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Bernstein, E.; Phillips, S. R., & Silverman, S. (2011). Attitudes and perceptions of middle school students toward competitive activities in physical education class. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 30, 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.30.1.69Brophy, J. (2010). Motivating students to learn. (3rd Ed). New York: Routledge.Brophy J., & Good, T. (1990). Educational psychology (2nd ed.) New York: Longman.Carlson, T. B. (1995). We hate gym: Student alienation from physical education. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 14, 467-477. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.467Castilli, D. M., & Valley, J. A. (2007). Chapter 3: The relationship of physical fitness and motor competence to physical activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 26(4), 358-374. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.26.4.358Chang, H. N., & Jordan, P. W. (2013). Building a culture of Attendance: Schools and afterschool programs together can and should make a difference! In T.K. Peterson's (Ed.) Expanding minds and opportunities (pp. 56-61) Washington, DC: Collaborative.Chen, A. (2015). Operationalizing physical literacy for learners: Embodying the motivation to learn. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(2), 125-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.03.005Chen, S.; Sun, H.; Zhu, X., & Chen, A. (2014). Relationship between motivation and learning and after-school physical activity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 88(4), 468-477. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2014.961054Cohen, A., & Honigsfield, A. (2013). Breaking the mold of education. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Costello, J. A., & Laubach, S. (1978). Student behavior. In W. Anderson and G. Barrette's (Eds.) What's going on in gym? (pp. 11-24). Newton, CT: Motor Skill: Theory into PracticeDiener, C. I., & Dweck, C. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451-462. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.5.451Dudley, D.; Okley, A.; Pearson, P., & Cotton, W. (2011). A systematic review of the effectiveness of physical education and sport interventions targeting physical activity, movement skills and enjoyment of physical activity. European Physical Education Review, 17(3), 353-378. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X11416734Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: BallantineFeguera, R., & An, R. (2017). Motor skill competence and physical activity in preschoolers: A review. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 2(1), 136-146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-016-2102-1Finchum, F. D.; Hokoda, A., & Sanders, R. (1989). Learned helplessness: Test anxiety and academic achievement. Child Development, 60(1), 138-145. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131079Gould, D. (2016). Leadership as a life skill in youth sports. In Nicholas L. Holt's (Ed.) Positive youth development through sport (151-167). NY: Routledge.Graham, G. (1995). Physical education through students' eyes and in students' voice. Introduction. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 364-371. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.364Graham, G. (2015). The fall and rise of physical education. PE Central-What Works in Physical Education (Special Issue), 1-8.Hopple, C., & Graham, G. (1995). What children think, feel, and know about physical fitness testing. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 408-417. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.14.4.408Lander, N.; Esther, N.; Morgan, P. J.; Salmon, J., & Barnett, L. M. (2017). Characteristics of teacher training in school-based physical education interventions to improve fundamental movement skills and/or physical activity: A systematic review. Sport Medicine, 47(1), 135-161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0561-6Li, W.; Wright, P.; Rukavina, P., & Pickering, M. (2008). Measuring students' perceptions of personal and social responsibility and its relationship to intrinsic motivation in urban physical education. J