Investigation on Legacy & Novel Brominated Flame Retardants in Antarctic indoor environments: levels, sources and fate

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are a global environmental concern, having long been identified as harmful substances due to their toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation in humans and wildlife. The commercial mixtures Penta-BDE and Octa-BDE have been banned in the European Union because of their toxic effects. Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) are brominated aliphatic cyclic hydrocarbons used in building materials, upholstery textiles, and electronics. The aim of this thesis was to assess concentrations of brominated flame retardants (BFRs), including specifically polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): IUPAC congener numbers BDE-28, -47, -66, -85, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183, hexabromocyclododecane (α-, β-, γ- HBCD), novel brominated flames retardants such as BTBPE, PBBZ, HBB, PBEB, PBT, TBECH (α, β) and Dechlorane Plus isomers (anti and syn) in dust samples from different indoor environments at Spanish Antarctic research station of Gabriel de Castilla, the Chilean Antarctic research station of Prof. Julio Escudero and the British RRS James Clark Ross research vessel. The mean concentrations of ∑9PBDEs were 41.5 ± 43.8 ng/g in Gabriel de Castilla, 27.2 ± 37.9 ng/g in RSS James Clark Ross and 18.7 ± 14.2 ng/g in Prof. Julio Escudero. The Gabriel de Castilla research station reported a total ∑9PBDEs concentration of 301 ng/g. BDE-183 was detected with the highest concentrations of 69, 24 and 18 ng/g in Lab 2, Bedroom 1 and the Living room, respectively. The Prof. Julio Escudero research station reported a total ∑9PBDEs concentration of 83 ng/g and its highest levels of PBDEs were detected in the Meeting room with 18 ng/g (BDE-99) and 14 ng/g (BDE-47).. RSS James Clark Ross reported a total ∑9 PBDEs concentration of 165 ng/g, while the highest concentration of BDE-153 was detected in the Sample storage room with 59 ng/g, followed by the Computer room with 15 ng/g. The mean concentration of ∑HBCD was highest in RRS James Clark Ross (761 ± 1043 ng/g) followed by Gabriel de Castilla (257 ± 407 ng/g) and Prof. Julio Escudero (15 ± 15 ng/g). The total ∑HBCD concentration was highest in RSS James Clark Ross with 5328 ng/g, followed by Gabriel de Castilla with 2310 ng/g and Prof. Julio Escudero with a lower concentration of 30 ng/g. The mean concentrations of ∑9NBFRs were 24.7 ± 34.1 ng/g in Gabriel de Castilla, followed by RSS James Clark Ross with 21.1 ± 110 ng/g and Prof. Julio Escudero with 1.07 ± 2.17 ng/g. In general, ∑9NBFRs were 2227 (ng/g) in Gabriel de Castilla followed by 1329 ng/g in RRS James Clark Ross and finally 86.5 ng/g in Prof. Julio Escudero. The highest level (905 ng/g) was detected in the Sample storage room at RRS James Clark Ross. Dechlorane Plus, syn-DP compound was detected in all rooms in the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla base; the highest concentrations were found in the Living room (388 ng/g), Bedroom 1 (222 g/g) and Lab 2 (194 ng/g). The isomer anti-DP was also detected in Igloo 2 (170 ng/g) and in the Living room (154 ng/g). In general, the analysis of air mass in order to determine possible sources and fates of these contaminants demonstrated that the sampling area are strongly influenced by anthropogenic impact. This suggests that the concentration of these chemicals in any indoor environment will depend on the types of products present in each research station. Although the estimated exposure is well below the corresponding reference doses (RfDs), caution is needed given the likely future increase in use of these FRs and the currently unknown contribution to human exposure by other pathways such as inhalation and diet