Intermediates and kinetics of membrane fusion

Recently, it has become clear that the influenza virus fusion protein, hemagglutinin (HA), produces membrane destabilization and fusion by a multistep process, which involves the aggregation of the HAs to form a fusion site. While the details of this process are under debate, it is important to recognize that proposing any sequence of "microscopic" fusion intermediates encumbers general "macroscopic" kinetic consequences, i.e., with respect to membrane mixing rates. Using a kinetic scheme which incorporates the essential elements of several recently proposed models, some of these measurable properties have been elucidated. First, a rigorous mathematical relationship between fusion intermediates and the fusion event itself is defined. Second, it is shown that what is measured as the macroscopic "fusion rate constant" is a simple function of all of the rate constants governing the transitions between intermediates, whether or not one of the microscopic steps is rate limiting. Third, while this kinetic scheme predicts a delay (or lag) time for fusion, as has been observed, it will be very difficult to extract reliable microscopic information from these data. Furthermore, it is predicted that the delay time can depend upon HA surface density even when the HA aggregation step is very rapid compared with fusion, i.e., the delay time need not be due to HA aggregation. Fourth, the inactivation process observed for influenza virions at low pH can be described within this kinetic scheme simply, yet rigorously, via the loss of the fusion intermediates. Fifth, predicted Arrhenius plots of fusion rates can be linear for this multistep scheme, even though there is no single rate-determining step and even when a branched step is introduced, i.e., where one pathway predominates at low temperature and the other pathway predominates at high temperature. Furthermore, the apparent activation energies obtained from these plots bear little or no quantitative resemblance to the microscopic activation energies used to simulate the data. Overall, these results clearly show that the intermediates of protein mediated fusion can be studied only by using assays sensitive to the formation of each proposed intermediate