Maximum likelihood phylogeny of the genus <i>Epicephala</i> reconstructed based on analysis of combined mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), nuclear elongation factor 1-alpha (EF1α) and arginine kinase (ArgK) gene sequences.

Blue lines indicate lineages with parasitic lifestyles, including species that either entirely lack the pollination behavior or show pollination behavior only occasionally [9, 12]; green lines indicate lineages with active pollination behavior. Lineages occurring in Asia/Oceania, Africa, and the New World are indicated by beige, turquoise, and yellow boxes, respectively. Each terminal label includes information on host plant species. Abbreviations are: E., Epicephala; P., Phyllanthus; G., Glochidion; B., Breynia; F., Flueggea. Numbers at nodes are bootstrap probability values based on 1,000 replications. Major evolutionary events are indicated for selected nodes. Epicephala anomala and E. acuminatella are conservatively labeled as active pollinators, but there is a possibility that they are parasitic (see text for discussion).