Covariate-adjusted estimated marginal means for proportional pupil size changes over time.

Time is partitioned into 100-ms time bins (X-axis labels refer to the temporal onset of each time bin relative to stimulus onset). Vertical dashed lines indicate the average onset and offset of the presented word. Blue curves: High Arousal words; red curves: Low Arousal words; Top to bottom: English, Finnish, and German L1 participants; Left hand panels: stimuli presented in participants’ first language; Right hand panels: stimuli presented in participants’ second language. Error bars refer to standard errors for the simple effect of Word Type derived from linear mixed effect model analyses (see text). White areas indicate time bins where the simple effect of Word Type was significant at p < .05.