Practice of the Freedom of the Press in China: Cases of Hollington Kong Tong and Xingye Ma

本研究透過分析董顯光和馬星野的著述與活動，探究赴美學習新聞學的中國留學生返國後如何運用所學，對新聞自由的看法經歷什麼樣的改變，如何調適國民黨宣傳原則和美國新聞專業倫理之間的矛盾。 董顯光深深內化了美國新聞自由理念與新聞專業倫理，但他返國後中國陷入內憂外患。基於愛國心切，董顯光明知違反專業倫理，仍接受蔣中正命令從事審查和宣傳工作，也為國民黨培育宣傳人員。董顯光受制於蔣中正和國民黨高層的壓力，無法放寬審查尺度，使美國記者和教授感覺自由受到壓迫並起而抗爭。 馬星野返國後先奉蔣中正指示辦新聞教育，他向學生灌輸新聞自由理念，希望培養具道德倫理的專業記者而非國民黨宣傳人員。馬星野結合三民主義、中國傳統道德和美國新聞專業理念，創造自成一格的新聞觀，他為配合國民黨需求一再強調國家利益、民族利益和三民主義為記者最高指導原則，忽略美國記者的政治獨立原則。他豐富了中國新聞專業的內涵，同時限縮了新聞自由的空間，比起新聞自由更強調媒體負有社會責任。不過他主掌《中央日報》時期力行企業化，也採取放任政策，不干涉手下年輕記者揭發敏感新聞，更讓主筆王新命撰社論大肆批評政府高官，可見他仍受到美國新聞自由理念影響，認為媒體有監督政府以促進民主之責。 整體而言，董顯光和馬星野嚮往新聞自由，也希望促使中國新聞業現代化，但受限於政局壓力，兩人對新聞自由的貢獻不大，對新聞專業化則大有建樹。This research aims to explore how the Chinese students who studied journalism in the U.S. adjusted their differences and paradoxes between the ideals of American Journalism and the KMT''s propaganda principles by analyzing the articles and activities of Mr. Hollington K. Tong and Mr. Xingye Ma. Hollington Kong Tong deeply internalized the American ideals of freedom of the press and journalistic professionalism. However, when China was in crisis, Tong surrendered to patriotism and promoted propaganda, censorship and cultivated propagandists for the KMT. Tong faced huge pressures from Chiang Kai-Shek and the KMT top officials so that he couldn''t loosen the framework of censorship. U.S. journalists and professors felt their freedoms were threatened and fought with Tong. This position ultimately caused him significant regret. Xingye Ma initially devoted himself to journalistic education. Chiang Kai-Shek asked Ma to train propagandists for the KMT, but Ma advocated freedom of the press and wanted students to become professional journalists rather than propagandists. He combined the Three Principles of the People, traditional Chinese ethics and American journalistic professionalism to shape his views of journalism, in which he underscored the interests of the country, the nation and the aforementioned Three Principles of the People as the highest principles for Chinese journalists. To comply with the KMT''s needs, Ma ignored the principle of independence. Ma enriched Chinese journalism while limiting the rooms of freedom. He also believed that social responsibilities are more important than freedom of the press. But when Ma was in charge of the Central Daily News, he operated it as an enterprise and adopted a policy of nonintervention. Ma let young journalists cover sensitive topics and publish critical editorials. It is clear that Ma believed in some America ideals and thought that the press should monitor the government to promote democracy. Moreover, Tong and Ma were attracted toward freedom of the press and anticipated to modernize Chinese journalism, but the political pressures restrained them from widening this freedom. However, admittedly, they still have contributions for professionalizing journalism