Sakizaya Syntax: With Special Reference to Negative, Interrogative, and Causative Constructions

本論文主要探討撒奇萊雅語句法結構，包含三種句型：否定、疑問及使役。撒奇萊雅語本屬阿美族方言，Tsuchida (1988)提出：撒奇萊雅語為保存最古老語言特徵的阿美族方言。惟過去研究多集中於中部阿美語，且因撒奇萊雅族人口數相對較少，而長時間被忽略。故本論文的研究目標有三：一為提供撒奇萊雅語較完整的文法描述；二在探討撒奇萊雅語中較不同於中部阿美語的三種句型結構；最後，參考吳靜蘭(2006b) 對中部阿美語的研究，比較撒奇萊雅語與中部阿美語的異同。 本論文共分為六個章節，第一章介紹撒奇萊雅族地理、歷史及語言背景等，並回顧過去中部阿美語及撒奇萊雅語相關文獻。 第二章主要討論撒奇萊雅語構詞、格位、代名詞及焦點等相關主題，並點出與中部阿美語不同之處，例如：撒奇萊雅語沒有複數的格位而中部阿美語有；撒奇萊雅語的第三人稱單複數不同於中部阿美語；再者，撒奇萊雅語以前綴mu-標記及物性較不高的動詞，取代中部阿美語主焦中綴-um-，且中部阿美語-um-的動詞有限，而mu-的句法表現在撒奇萊雅語中較為多元。 第三章著重在否定結構，除最常見且用於直述句的否定詞ca’ay之外，撒奇萊雅語的否定詞與中部阿美語完全不同，因此，本章節先描述否定詞的句法分佈及語意特性，並參照宋麗梅和葉俞廷(2005)否定詞研究，進一步討論否定詞的詞性及句法結構。 第四章探討三種疑問結構：是非問句、選擇問句及疑問詞問句。前兩種問句主要藉由音調變化或疑問語氣詞的使用來呈現，故疑問語氣詞，如haw, saw, hani and hakia.等也將在本章介紹詞。接著，依據疑問詞句法及語意上的表現，本章將進一步檢視其句法分佈及特性。 第五章主要討論使役結構構詞及句法特性、格位、焦點系統的相關議題。從構詞上來說，使役動詞透過前綴pa-產生語意上及句法上的變化；從句法上來說，使役結構多以非主焦(UV)的句型呈現，而使動者(causer)也多以屬格(genitive case)標記，唯獨後綴-ay出現時可以用在主焦結構。最後，比較使役與反身結構，並討論其論元增減後格位標記的變化。 本論文主要希望能提供一個完整且豐富的文法描述，期望對阿美族方言或台灣南島語之類型學研究有所助益。This thesis attempts to explore a more detailed grammatical description of Sakizaya and discusses three syntactic constructions, which are negative, interrogative and causative constructions. The Sakizaya used to be thought of as part of the Amis, and their language was claimed to have retained older characteristics of Amis (Tsuchida 1988). And it is probably for this reason that most studies concentrate on Central Amis owing to its relatively large population whereas only a few studies focus on Sakizaya. Accordingly, the aims of the thesis are three-fold. First of all, the thesis aims at providing a detailed grammatical sketch of Sakizaya; secondly, we would like to examine three syntactic constructions, which is found more different from Central Amis; thirdly, compared to Wu’s (2006b) studies on Central Amis, morphosyntactic behaviors between Central Amis and Sakizaya will be undertaken as well. The thesis is organized into six chapters. Chapter 1 provides a general geographical, historical and linguistic background of Sakizaya. And previous studies on Central Amis and Sakizaya will be reviewed in this chapter. hapter 2 investigates morphology, case markers, pronominal systems and voice markers in Sakizaya, which are found distinct from those in Central Amis. To being with, plurality of case markers does not exist in Sakizaya while it does exist in Amis. Second, 3rd personal singular pronoun ciniza ‘he/she’ and plural keheni ‘they’ are different from their corresponding pronouns in Central Amis. Third, Sakizaya takes an AV prefix mu- in place of the infix -um- attaches to less transitive action verbs. Moreover, mu- in Sakizaya can be attached to a variety of verbs whereas -um- in Central Amis is more limited. Chapter 3 focuses on negative constructions. Negators in Sakizaya are different from those in Central Amis except ca’ay that is the most commonly used in the declarative sentences. Thus, this chapter will explore all of the negators in terms of their syntactic positions and semantic functions. Afterwards, syntactic behaviors will be examined by following Sung and Yeh’s (2005) study as well. Chapter 4 probes three types of interrogative constructions, yes-no questions, alternative questions and wh- words questions. It is suggested that the former two perform in two strategies: intonation change and interrogative particles haw, saw, hani and hakia whose various semantic functions of particles will be introduced in this chapter. In addition, interrogative words will be discussed in terms of their syntactic properties and semantic interpretations. Chapter 5 discusses causative constructions in terms of their morphological and syntactic properties, case relations and voice marking systems. Morphologically, prefixation of the causative pa- results in changes of semantic meanings and syntactic properties. Syntactically, causatives are usually found to occur in UV constructions with the causer marked by the genitive case except that causative predicates affixed by the factual marker -ay are likely to occur in AV constructions. At last, causative readings will be compared with reciprocal readings in terms of valency change and case relations. To summarize, the thesis is expected to provide a comprehensive grammatical description in order to facilitate further research studies on Amis dialects and typological studies on Formosan languages and so on.Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ inglish Abstract............................................................................................................ iihinese Abstract.............................................................................................................. ivable of Contents.............................................................................................................. vist of Tables................................................................................................................. viiiist of Figures.................................................................................................................. ixist of Abbreviations........................................................................................................ xhapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................... 1.1. Preamble........................................................................................................ 1.2. General Background....................................................................................... 2.3. Literature review............................................................................................. 8.3.1. Tsukida (1993)................................................................................... 8.3.2. Liu (2003)........................................................................................ 11.3.3. Wu (2006)........................................................................................ 12.3.4. Huang (2006)................................................................................... 14.3.5. Lin (2007).........................................................................................16.4. Database........................................................................................................17.5. Organization..................................................................................................19hapter 2 Grammar Sketch of Sakizaya.......................................................... 20.1 Preliminary.................................................................................................. 20.2 Phonemic inventory..................................................................................... 20.3 Morphology................................................................................................. 22.3.1 Simple words................................................................................... 22 .3.2 Derivational affixes......................................................................... 22.3.2.1 Prefix....................................................................................... 22.3.2.2 Suffix....................................................................................... 31.3.2.3 Circumfix................................................................................ 34.3.3 Complex words............................................................................... 36.3.4 Reduplication.................................................................................. 37.4 Word order................................................................................................... 38.5 Case marking............................................................................................... 39.5.1 Nouns.............................................................................................. 39.5.2 Pronouns.......................................................................................... 40.5.3 Demonstratives................................................................................ 42.6 Voice marking systems................................................................................ 44.7 TAM marking.............................................................................................. 55.7.1 Temporal and aspectual systems..................................................... 56.7.2 Modal systems................................................................................. 61.8 Final remarks............................................................................................... 62hapter 3 Negative Constructions........................................................................ 64.1 Preliminary.................................................................................................. 64.2 Negator ca’ay in declarative sentences....................................................... 64.3 Negator nayay in locative/existential/possessive sentences........................ 73.4 Negator amana in imperative sentences...................................................... 76 .5 Other negative operators............................................................................. 80.5.1 ma-liyoh ‘can’t’............................................................................... 80 .5.2 ma-kai ‘do not want’....................................................................... 81.5.3 la’cus ‘not good’............................................................................. 83.6 Double negation.......................................................................................... 84.7 Examination of syntactic categories of negative elements.......................... 86.8 Final remarks............................................................................................... 88hapter 4 Interrogative Constructions................................................................. 90 .1 Preliminary.................................................................................................. 90.2 Yes-no questions.......................................................................................... 90.2.1 Phonological strategy...................................................................... 91.2.2 Interrogative particles...................................................................... 92.3 Alternative questions................................................................................... 93.4 wh- questions............................................................................................... 95.4.1 cima ‘who’....................................................................................... 96.4.2 canan ‘what’.................................................................................. 100.4.3 i cuwa(-ay) ‘where/which’............................................................ 103.4.4 hacica ‘how much’ and pina ‘how many’..................................... 105.4.5 hacica ‘how’.................................................................................. 109.4.6 anu-yaan and na-yaan ‘when’....................................................... 111.4.7 kia ‘why’........................................................................................ 112.4.8 hica ‘how’...................................................................................... 113.4.9 hicanan ‘how’................................................................................ 114.5 Final remarks............................................................................................. 116hapter 5 Causative Constructions.................................................................... 119.1 Preliminary................................................................................................ 120.2 Formation of morphological causative verbs............................................ 120.2.1 Lexical causatives.......................................................................... 121.2.2 Morphological causatives.............................................................. 122.2.2.1 pa-+ nominal predicate.......................................................... 122.2.2.2 pa-+ verbal predicate............................................................. 124.3 Syntactic structure of causative reading.................................................... 128.4 Double causatives...................................................................................... 135.5 Valency change.......................................................................................... 137.6 Final remarks............................................................................................. 141hapter 6 Conclusion......................................................................................... 143eferences................................................................................................................ 14