Gender and Cardiovascular Disease

More women than men die of cardiovascular disease (CVD) each year in every major developed country and most emerging economies. Nonetheless, CVD has often been considered as men’s disease due to the higher rates of coronary artery disease (CAD) of men at younger age. This has led to the underestimation of the impact of CVD morbidity and mortality in women. In addition, the underrepresentation of women in clinical diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic studies further established the image of CVD being a male’s disease. Consequently, diagnostic tests for CVD and its treatment are predominantly based on observations in men. This limits their diagnostic and treatment accuracy in women. Improved insight in sex-specific features in the pathogenesis of CVD is warranted, especially since the aging of the population will further increase CVD mortality and morbidity in women. There is accumulating demographic and scientific evidence that sex differences exist in pathology and incidence of CAD and heart failure (HF) that, for this reason, will be touched upon in this chapter