The role of metabolic remodeling in macrophage polarization and its effect on skeletal muscle regeneration

Macrophages are crucial for tissue homeostasis. Based on their activation, they might display classical/M1 or alternative/M2 phenotypes. M1 macrophages produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitric oxide (NO). M2 macrophages upregulate arginase-1 and reduce NO and ROS levels; they also release anti-inflammatory cytokines, growth factors, and polyamines, thus promoting angiogenesis and tissue healing. Moreover, M1 and M2 display key metabolic differences; M1 polarization is characterized by an enhancement in glycolysis and in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) along with a decreased oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos), whereas M2 are characterized by an efficient OxPhos and reduced PPP. Recent Advances: The glutamine-related metabolism has been discovered as crucial for M2 polarization. Vice versa, flux discontinuities in the Krebs cycle are considered additional M1 features; they lead to increased levels of immunoresponsive gene 1 and itaconic acid, to isocitrate dehydrogenase 1-downregulation and to succinate, citrate, and isocitrate over-expression