The effect of heavy-duty machinery on the formation of pseudo-knapping debitáge on Stone Age cultural landscapes

Abstract: In this paper we examine the effects of heavy-duty earth moving machinery on the formation of lithic debitáge at open-air Stone Age/Paleolithic sites. Industrial development activity on archaeologically sensitive landscapes is an increasingly common occurrence in many parts of the world. Few studies have considered what the long term consequences of these activities might be on stone tool scatters, particularly how such activities might contribute to the production of pseudo artifacts. Here we present the results of a ‘technological study’ of lithic debitáge created through actualistic machine activity at a solar facility construction site, in a sensitive Stone Age cultural landscape in South Africa. Many debitáge categories superficially indistinguishable from knapping waste were produced during the experiment as well as perfectly formed dorsally ridged flakes reminiscent of un-retouched bladelets found in many parts of the world. We also present some criteria that could assist cultural resource management practitioners and archaeologists working on a landscape scale to discriminate between machine-induced debitáge and anthropogenic debitáge