Respiratory hypoalgesia? Breath-holding, but not respiratory phase modulates nociceptive flexion reflex and pain intensity

Several observations suggest that respiratory phase (inhalation vs. exhalation) and post-inspiratory breath-holds could modulate pain and the nociceptive reflex. This experiment aimed to investigate the role of both mecha- nisms. Thirty-two healthy participants received supra-threshold electrocutaneous stimulations to elicit both the Nociceptive Flexion Reflex (NFR) and pain, either during spontaneous inhalations or exhalations, or during three types of instructed breath-holds: following exhalation, at mid-inhalation and at full-capacity inhalation. Whether the electrocutaneous stimulus was applied during inhalation or exhalation did not affect the NFR or pain. Self-reported pain was reduced and the NFR was increased during breath-holding compared to spontane- ous breathing. Whereas the type of breath-hold did not impact on self-reported pain, breath-holds at full- capacity inhalation and following exhalation were associated with a lower NFR amplitude compared to breath- holds at mid-inhalation. The present findings confirm that breath-holding can modulate pain (sensitivity) and suggest that both attentional distraction and changes in vagal activity may underlie the observed effects