Integrating Proteins in Layer-by-Layer Assemblies Independently of their Electrical Charge

Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly is an attractive method for protein immobilization at interfaces, a much wanted step for biotechnologies and biomedicine. Integrating proteins in LbL thin films is however very challenging due to their low conformational entropy, heterogeneous spatial distribution of charges, and polyampholyte nature. Protein–polyelectrolyte complexes (PPCs) are promising building blocks for LbL construction owing to their standardized charge and polyelectrolyte (PE) corona. In this work, lysozyme was complexed with poly­(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) at different ionic strengths and pH values. The PPCs size and electrical properties were investigated, and the forces driving complexation were elucidated, in the light of computations of polyelectrolyte conformation, with a view to further unravel LbL construction mechanisms. Quartz crystal microbalance and atomic force microscopy were used to monitor the integration of PPCs compared to the one of bare protein molecules in LbL assemblies, and colorimetric assays were performed to determine the protein amount in the thin films. Layers built with PPCs show higher protein contents and hydration levels. Very importantly, the results also show that LbL construction with PPCs mainly relies on standard PE–PE interactions, independent of the charge state of the protein, in contrast to classical bare protein assembly with PEs. This considerably simplifies the incorporation of proteins in multilayers, which will be beneficial for biosensing, heterogeneous biocatalysis, biotechnologies, and medical applications that require active proteins at interfaces