Archaeological investigations in Ulu Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia

This thesis presents a report on archaeological investigations in the district of Ulu Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia focusing on the Nenggiri Valley. The area selected for investigation possesses great archaeological potential, based on geographical, archaeological and anthropological indicators. Geographically, the area lies within the famous inland trade route, connecting the main northeastern ports of the Malay peninsula and the southern trade centre of Melaka. Significantly, past archaeological surveys and excavations in Gua Cha rockshelter produced significant evidence of Hoabinhian, Neolithic and historical remains. Furthermore the area lies well within the Orang Asli territory, the sedentary Temiar and the once foraging Semangs. My research began with a survey of potential archaeological sites along the Nenggiri River and its major tributaries. This has led to the discovery of a number of important, undisturbed sites such as Gua Chawas, Gua Batu Cincin and Gua Peraling. The sites of Gua Chawas and Gua Peraling were chosen for excavation. Both sites have dense occupation layers of the Malaysian Hoabinhian, spanning many millennia, running into the Neolithic phase of pottery and agriculture, and then followed by an early historical occupation and a modem period of Orang Asli usage for camping. The Hoabinhian deposits produced much material including bones of food animals, plant remains in the form of phytoliths (tiny silica bodies from stems and leaves), riverine shellfish, locally manufactured stone tools made from river pebbles and crystalline limestone. Radiocarbon dates on shells started at over 10,000 years ago at both sites, although true ages are likely to be younger. The Neolithic pottery is mainly 'cord-marked', having a roughened surface from beating during manufacture with a cord-wrapped piece of wood, and is of a type found all over the Malay peninsula after 4,000 years ago. Gua Chawas, which is located far from any river, was excavated to a depth of three metres. Gua Chawas produced very exciting evidence in its upper layers, about 1,000 years ago, for the offering of Buddhist clay tablets in a tiny elevated side cave. The votive clay tablets from Bukit Chawas, numbering more than 1,000 pieces (mainly broken), throw some light on this mystery. They are impressed with Bodhisatva and Avaloketisvara images characteristic of the Hindu-Buddhist Mahayanist art of the Srivijayan period of early Southeast Asian history (circa 670- 1300 AD). Gua Peraling is a capacious rockshelter located close to the Perias River, a tributary of the Nenggiri. The site produced much denser debris of Hoabinhian habitation than Gua Chawas, perhaps because of its location overlooking the river, and occupation debris extending here right to the surface layers of the site. A number of Hoabinhian burials were also excavated, and one in particular has provided new data about the biology of the Hoabinhian people. The discovery of rock art at Gua Batu Cincin extends the known distribution of rock art sites in Malaysia and adds a new dimension to the prehistoric heritage of Ulu Kelantan