Reformist Islam, gender and marriage in late colonial Dutch East Indies, 1900-1942

The introduction of Islamic reformism in the late colonial period transformed religious life in the Dutch East Indies. Reformist Muslims sought to purify the faith of what they saw as corrupting un-Islamic elements, and 'modernise' the attitudes of the community of believers. They formed organisations such as Moehammadijah and the Jong Islamieten Bond, and embarked on a wide range of religious, educational and social reforms. A feature of the movement was its extensive involvement of women. Women established their own organisati9ps such as 'Aisjijah and the Jong Islamieten Bond Dames Afdeeling (JIBDA) which had specific agendas of improving the religious life and social rights of women. This thesis focuses on the 1920s and 1930s and examines why women participated in the reformist movement and what they gained from it. It describes the growth and development of reformist women's organisations and the activities they engaged in, and argues that Islamic reformism brought great benefits for women, despite restrictions on leadership and religious legitimacy. Further, this study examines the growing discourse of equal rights for women based on their religious obligations. It argues that this movement and the discourse surrounding it greatly broadened the opportunities for women. It also investigates a contrary discourse based on women's domestic role, and demonstrates how ideas associated with this became dominant in the movement without, however, eradicating the alternative discourse based on religious rights. This thesis also examines the institution of marriage, identified by both male and female reformist Muslims as a major object of reform, and argues that the role for women in setting the parameters of the reform program was limited. Although reformist Muslim women spoke often on matters such as divorce and polygamy, they acceded to male interpretations because of men's superior religious authority, and because of the political context of the debate. Women accepted what men defined as correct Islamic marriage and divorce procedures, and sought to improve their practice. Nevertheless, reformist Islam provided the religious justification for changes that gave women greater choice and freedom, both in terms of who and when they married, and in the nature of the marriage relationship itself. This study seeks to evaluate the benefits to women of the reformist movement as a whole. A wide array of original sources are used to identify the issues women addressed. Through debates on matters as diverse as the right of women to pray in the mosque, their obligation to veil, and how they could claim a divorce, women demonstrated what was important to them and why. Finally, this thesis critically assesses the contribution of the movement to improving the lives of its followers in particular, and locates the movement within broader debates concerning Islam and gender