GCE promotes pulmonary inflammation through the TNF-α pathway.

<p>(a) Scheme for TNF-α neutralization of GCE-induced asthma model. <i>a-TNF</i>, anti-TNF-α mAb; <i>goat</i>, goat IgG. (b) AHR and (c) BAL cell count. (d) TNF-α-producing macrophage population in the lung tissue. (e) Quantitative analysis of CD11b⁺TNF-α⁺ cell population from “d” panel. (f) TNF-α levels in lung homogenates. * indicates statistical significance between “Sham” and “GCE” (n = 5, p<0.05). ^# indicates statistical significance between “GCE” and “a-TNF” (n = 5, <i>p</i><0.05). All data are representative of three independent experiments. <i>R_L</i>, pulmonary resistance; <i>Mac</i>, macrophage; <i>Lym</i>, lymphocyte; <i>Eos</i>, eosinophil; <i>Neu</i>, neutrophil.