Quantile-Quantile plot of p-values for rare variant tests in STAR under the null hypothesis of no gene/secondary trait associations.

<p>Five tests were evaluated, i.e. CMC, WSS, KBAC, VT and SKAT. Empirical p-values for each test were plotted against their theoretical expectations. A variety of scenarios with different primary trait effects and trait residual correlations were examined, which include (A) ; (B) ; (C) and (D) . P-values were obtained with 5,000 permutations. Type I error was evaluated using 10,000 replicates. For each replicate, 5,000 individuals with extreme quantitative traits were selected from a cohort of 100,000.