Sites of action and effects of lipoic acid on brain glucose metabolism.

<p>The scheme shows the PI3K/Akt pathway of insulin signaling and the effects of lipoic acid on the different components investigated in this study: (A) glucose uptake, (B) total GLUT3 and GLUT4 expression, (C) translocation of GLUT3 and GLUT4 to the plasma membrane from intracellular vesicles, (D) changes in IRS-Tyr⁶⁰⁸ /IRS-Ser³⁰⁷ ratio, (E) activation of Akt, (F) phosphorylation of GSK3β at Ser⁹, and (G) synaptic plasticity.