The positions of sampling sites in a constrained ordination space characterised by environmental variables.

<p>An arrow's length and its angle represent the strength of the correlation between the corresponding environmental variable and the first two ordination axes. The first axis of the constrained ordination diagram showed latitudinal transition of landscape-level disturbance gradients, and the second axis showed differences in canopy cover across successional gradient in post-clearcutting environment. Environmental variables: lon: longitude, lat: latitude, ba_conifer: basal area of conifer, canopy: canopy cover, sap_den: sapling density, ba_snag: basal area of snag, p_disturb_200 m: proportion of disturbed area at 200 m, p_disturb_500 m: proportion of disturbed area at 500 m, p_disturb_1 km: proportion of disturbed area at 1 km, p_disturb_2 km: proportion of disturbed area at 2 km. Age classes: C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4: 5–19, 20–39, 40–59, and 60–70 year old clearcutting stands, respectively, N-I, N-II, and N-III: 50–79, 80–120, and >120 year old natural stands, respectively.