Mating Behavior of <i>Daphnia</i>: Impacts of Predation Risk, Food Quantity, and Reproductive Phase of Females

<div><p>High predation risk and food depletion lead to sexual reproduction in cyclically parthenogenetic <i>Daphnia</i>. Mating, the core of sexual reproduction, also occurs under these conditions. Assessment of the environmental conditions and alteration of mating efforts may aid in determining the success of sexual reproduction. Here, we evaluated the impacts of predation risk, food quantity, and reproductive phase of females on the mating behavior of <i>Daphnia obtusa</i> males including contact frequency and duration using video analysis. Mating–related behavior involved male–female contact (mating) as well as male–male contact (fighting). Mating frequency increased while unnecessary fighting decreased in the presence of predation risk. In addition, low food concentration reduced fighting between males. Males attempted to attach to sexual females more than asexual females, and fighting occurred more frequently in the presence of sexual females. Duration of mating was relatively long; however, males separated shortly after contact in terms of fighting behavior. Thus, assessment of environmental factors and primary sexing of mates were performed before actual contact, possibly mechanically, and precise sex discrimination was conducted after contact. These results suggest that mating in <i>Daphnia</i> is not a random process but rather a balance between predation risk and energetic cost that results in changes in mating and fighting strategies.</p>