Multimerization of Solution-State Proteins by Tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin

Surface binding and interactions of anionic porphyins bound to cationic proteins have been studied for nearly three decades and are relevant as models for protein surface molecular recognition and photoinitiated electron transfer. However, interpretation of data in nearly all reports explicitly or implicitly assumed interaction of porphyrin with monodisperse proteins in solutions. In this report, using small-angle X-ray scattering with solution phase samples, we demonstrate that horse heart cytochrome (cyt) <i>c</i>, triheme cytochrome <i>c</i>₇ PpcA from <i>Geobacter sulfurreducens</i>, and hen egg lysozyme multimerize in the presence of zinc tetrakis­(4-sulfonatophenyl)­porphyrin (ZnTPPS). Multimerization of cyt <i>c</i> showed a pH dependence with a stronger apparent binding affinity under alkaline conditions and was weakened in the presence of a high salt concentration. Ferric-cyt <i>c</i> formed complexes larger than those formed by ferro-cyt c. Free base TPPS and FeTPPS facilitated formation of complexes larger than those of ZnTPPS. No increase in protein aggregation state for cationic proteins was observed in the presence of cationic porphyrins. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations of cyt <i>c</i> and PpcA with free base TPPS corroborated X-ray scattering results and revealed a mechanism by which the tetrasubstituted charged porphyrins serve as bridging ligands nucleating multimerization of the complementarily charged protein. The final aggregation products suggest that multimerization involves a combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. The results demonstrate an overlooked complexity in the design of multifunctional ligands for protein surface recognition