Chronic effects of taVNS in rats.

<p>Comparing blood glucose concentrations in naïve and taVNS treated ZDF rats (a, n = 6 each), in pinealectomized ZDF rats (immediately after pinealectomy operation) with or without taVNS treatment (b, n = 5 each), and in naïve, taVNS, and AMEA treated ZL rats (c, n = 4 each). ZL, ZDF, naïve ZL or ZDF rats; taVNS, taVNS treated rats; AMEA, auricular margin electroacupuncture treated rats; Px, pinealectomized rats; Px/VS, taVNS treated pinealectomized rats; Mel, daily melatonin injected rats. Bas, baseline (before taVNS); W1–W5, 1–5 weeks after consecutive taVNS treatment. *, **, *** P<0.05, 0.01, 0.001 <i>vs</i>. Bas of the same group; #,##,### P<0.05, 0.01, 0.001 <i>vs</i>. naïve at the same time point, respectively. Concentrations of plasma HbA_1c (d, e) and insulin (f, g) upon sampling were compared in naïve ZDF and ZL rats (d, f) and in ZDF rats subjected to different treatments (e, g). *, *** P<0.05, 0.001 <i>vs</i>. ZDF, respectively; ### P<0.001 <i>vs</i>. remaining groups. Sample size estimated based on power level of 0.8.