Digital Mapping of Soil Salinity and Crop Yield across a Coastal Agricultural Landscape Using Repeated Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) Surveys

<div><p>Reliable and real-time information on soil and crop properties is important for the development of management practices in accordance with the requirements of a specific soil and crop within individual field units. This is particularly the case in salt-affected agricultural landscape where managing the spatial variability of soil salinity is essential to minimize salinization and maximize crop output. The primary objectives were to use linear mixed-effects model for soil salinity and crop yield calibration with horizontal and vertical electromagnetic induction (EMI) measurements as ancillary data, to characterize the spatial distribution of soil salinity and crop yield and to verify the accuracy of spatial estimation. Horizontal and vertical EMI (type EM38) measurements at 252 locations were made during each survey, and root zone soil samples and crop samples at 64 sampling sites were collected. This work was periodically conducted on eight dates from June 2012 to May 2013 in a coastal salt-affected mud farmland. Multiple linear regression (MLR) and restricted maximum likelihood (REML) were applied to calibrate root zone soil salinity (EC_e) and crop annual output (CAO) using ancillary data, and spatial distribution of soil EC_e and CAO was generated using digital soil mapping (DSM) and the precision of spatial estimation was examined using the collected meteorological and groundwater data. Results indicated that a reduced model with EM_h as a predictor was satisfactory for root zone EC_e calibration, whereas a full model with both EM_h and EM_v as predictors met the requirement of CAO calibration. The obtained distribution maps of EC_e showed consistency with those of EMI measurements at the corresponding time, and the spatial distribution of CAO generated from ancillary data showed agreement with that derived from raw crop data. Statistics of jackknifing procedure confirmed that the spatial estimation of EC_e and CAO exhibited reliability and high accuracy. A general increasing trend of EC_e was observed and moderately saline and very saline soils were predominant during the survey period. The temporal dynamics of root zone EC_e coincided with those of daily rainfall, water table and groundwater data. Long-range EMI surveys and data collection are needed to capture the spatial and temporal variability of soil and crop parameters. Such results allowed us to conclude that, cost-effective and efficient EMI surveys, as one part of multi-source data for DSM, could be successfully used to characterize the spatial variability of soil salinity, to monitor the spatial and temporal dynamics of soil salinity, and to spatially estimate potential crop yield.</p>