Housing and Demographic Risk Factors Impacting Foot and Musculoskeletal Health in African Elephants [<i>Loxodonta africana</i>] and Asian Elephants [<i>Elephas maximus</i>] in North American Zoos

<div><p>For more than three decades, foot and musculoskeletal conditions have been documented among both Asian [<i>Elephas maximus</i>] and African [<i>Loxodonta africana]</i> elephants in zoos. Although environmental factors have been hypothesized to play a contributing role in the development of foot and musculoskeletal pathology, there is a paucity of evidence-based research assessing risk. We investigated the associations between foot and musculoskeletal health conditions with demographic characteristics, space, flooring, exercise, enrichment, and body condition for elephants housed in North American zoos during 2012. Clinical examinations and medical records were used to assess health indicators and provide scores to quantitate conditions. Using multivariable regression models, associations were found between foot health and age [<i>P</i> value = 0.076; Odds Ratio = 1.018], time spent on hard substrates [<i>P</i> value = 0.022; Odds Ratio = 1.014], space experienced during the night [<i>P</i> value = 0.041; Odds Ratio = 1.008], and percent of time spent in indoor/outdoor exhibits during the day [<i>P</i> value < 0.001; Odds Ratio = 1.003]. Similarly, the main risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders included time on hard substrate [<i>P</i> value = 0.002; Odds Ratio = 1.050] and space experienced in indoor/outdoor exhibits [<i>P</i> value = 0.039; Odds Ratio = 1.037]. These results suggest that facility and management changes that decrease time spent on hard substrates will improve elephant welfare through better foot and musculoskeletal health.</p>