Membrane Vesicles Released by a hypervesiculating <i>Escherichia coli</i> Nissle 1917 <i>tolR</i> Mutant Are Highly Heterogeneous and Show Reduced Capacity for Epithelial Cell Interaction and Entry

<div><p>Membrane vesicles (MVs) produced by Gram-negative bacteria are being explored for novel clinical applications due to their ability to deliver active molecules to distant host cells, where they can exert immunomodulatory properties. MVs released by the probiotic <i>Escherichia coli</i> Nissle 1917 (EcN) are good candidates for testing such applications. However, a drawback for such studies is the low level of MV isolation from <i>in vitro</i> culture supernatants, which may be overcome by the use of mutants in cell envelope proteins that yield a hypervesiculation phenotype. Here, we confirm that a <i>tolR</i> mutation in EcN increases MV production, as determined by protein, LPS and fluorescent lipid measurements. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of negatively stained MVs did not reveal significant differences with wild type EcN MVs. Conversely, TEM observation after high-pressure freezing followed by freeze substitution of bacterial samples, together with cryo-TEM observation of plunge-frozen hydrated isolated MVs showed considerable structural heterogeneity in the EcN <i>tolR</i> samples. In addition to common one-bilayer vesicles (OMVs) and the recently described double-bilayer vesicles (O-IMVs), other types of MVs were observed. Time-course experiments of MV uptake in Caco-2 cells using rhodamine- and DiO-labelled MVs evidenced that EcN <i>tolR</i> MVs displayed reduced internalization levels compared to the wild-type MVs. The low number of intracellular MVs was due to a lower cell binding capacity of the <i>tolR</i>-derived MVs, rather than a different entry pathway or mechanism. These findings indicate that heterogeneity of MVs from <i>tolR</i> mutants may have a major impact on vesicle functionality, and point to the need for conducting a detailed structural analysis when MVs from hypervesiculating mutants are to be used for biotechnological applications.</p>