White light-emitting diodes: History, progress, and future

About twenty years ago, in the autumn of 1996, the first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale. These then-new devices ushered in a new era in lighting by displacing lower-efficiency conventional light sources including Edison's venerable incandescent lamp as well as the Hg-discharge-based fluorescent lamp. We review the history of the conception, improvement, and commercialization of the white LED. Early models of white LEDs already exceeded the efficiency of low-wattage incandescent lamps, and extraordinary progress has been made during the last 20 years. The review also includes a discussion of advances in blue LED chips, device architecture, light extraction, and phosphors. Finally, we offer a brief outlook on opportunities provided by smart LED technology.115211sciescopu