Attentional and approach biases for smoking cues in smokers: an investigation of competing theoretical views of addiction

Rationale Different theories of addiction make conflicting predictions about whether attentional and approach biases for smoking-related cues are enhanced, or reduced, as a function of the level of nicotine dependence. Objective These theoretical views were evaluated by examining cognitive biases in smokers. Methods We monitored the eye movements of 41 smokers (predominantly young adults, who smoked from one to 40 cigarettes per day) as they completed a visual probe task in which smoking-related and matched control pictures were presented. Participants also completed a stimulus-response compatibility task, which measured the tendency to approach smoking-related cues, and a rating task. Results Smokers with lower levels of nicotine dependence showed greater maintained attention and faster approach responses to smoking-related cues. Longer gaze times for smoking cues were associated not only with lower levels of nicotine dependence, but also with higher levels of craving. Conclusions Overall, the results seem consistent with an integrated incentive-habit model of addiction