Sex hormone receptors are present in the human suprachiasmatic nucleus

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is the clock of the brain that orchestrates circadian and circannual biological rhythms, such as the rhythms of hormones, body temperature, sleep and mood. These rhythms are frequently disturbed in menopause and even more so in dementia and can be restored in postmenopausal women by sex hormone replacement therapy (SHRT). Although it seems clear, both from clinical and experimental studies, that sex hormones influence circadian rhythms, it is not known whether this is by a direct or an indirect effect on the SCN. Therefore, using immunocytochemistry in the present study, we investigated whether the human SCN expresses sex hormone receptors in 5 premenopausal women and 5 young men. SCN neurons appeared to contain estrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha), estrogen receptor-beta (ERbeta) and progesterone receptors. Median ratings of ER immunoreactivity per individual and per gender group revealed a statistically significantly stronger nuclear ERalpha expression pattern in female SCN neurons (p 0.1) and progesterone receptors (p > 0.7). These data seem to support previously reported functional and structural SCN differences in relation to sex and sexual orientation and indicate for the first time that estrogen and progesterone may act directly on neurons of the human biological clock. In addition, the present findings provide a potential neuroendocrine mechanism by which SHRT can act to improve or restore SCN-related rhythm disturbances, such as body temperature, sleep and moo