Quantum States and Generalized Observables: A Simple Proof of Gleason's Theorem

A quantum state can be understood in a loose sense as a map that assigns a value to every observable. Formalizing this characterization of states in terms of generalized probability distributions on the set of effects, we obtain a simple proof of the result, analogous to Gleason’s theorem, that any quantum state is given by a density operator. As a corollary we obtain a von Neumann–type argument against noncontextual hidden variables. It follows that on an individual interpretation of quantum mechanics the values of effects are appropriately understood as propensities