Co-infection of water buffaloes in Punjab, Pakistan, with Neospora caninum

Neosporosis and brucellosis represent the 2 leading and well-recognized causes of bovine abortion (1). Neospora caninum, the etiological agent of bovine neosporosis, is an abortifacient protozoan parasite, implicated in causing infection and subsequent reproductive losses in cattle (2), water buffaloes (3) and other domestic (4) as well as wild animal species (5). Neosporosis in buffalo has been documented from several regions of the world, such as from Brazil (6), Egypt (7), and Thailand (8), and also from Pakistan (9). Economic losses instigated by N. caninum worldwide can be demonstrated as direct costs mediated by abortion (10), together with culling infected animals (11). Globally, N. caninum-induced bovine abortion median losses have been estimated as>$1298.3 million (12). Bovine neosporosi