A Longitudinal Test of the Relation between German Nationalism, Patriotism, and

A number of cross-sectional studies have demonstrated a significant co-variation of patriotism and nationalism with prejudice against immigrants. This study examines the causal relationship between the three variables among 551 adult German respondents without migration background. Employing a longitudinal cross-lagged design with two measurements 4 years apart, a positive and significant effect of nationalism on prejudice was found. Patriotism predicted ethnic prejudice negatively when nationalism was controlled for. However, in a separate cross-lagged model where the common variance between nationalism and patriotism was not controlled for, patriotism had no causal effect on prejudice. In the discussion, these contradictory effects of patriotism on prejudice against immigrants are interpreted as the result of different dimensions composing patriotism, namely national identification and adherence to democratic norms. Consequences and political implications of the results are discussed, referring to the negative effects of enforcing both nationalism and patriotism. Some political scientists consider national identifica-tion as a basis for state building (Barash and Webel, 2009, 150ff.). Politicians sometimes argue that national pride and identification are prerequisites for being a good and proper citizen. For example, George W. Bush, president of the United States from 2001 to 2009, declared (in Riga, Latvia, on 7 May 2005; Office of the Press Secretary) that ‘the promise of democracy starts with national pride, and independence, and elections’. Others, however, regard national identifica-tion with scepticism, especially when focusing on the effects of national identification on outgroup relations (Bar-Tal, 1997; Cohrs et al., 2004). Previous researchers have distinguished between at least two types of national identification, namely nationalism and patriotism (Kosterman and Feshbach, 1989). Across countries, researchers have repeatedly found a positive co-variation between nationalism and ethnic prejudice (Adorno et al., 1950; Blank an