Valk / ESTONIAN AND RUSSIAN ADOLESCENTS Ethnic Identity, Ethnic Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Esteem Toward Others Among Estonian and Russian Adolescents

Ethnic identity in relation to self-esteem and esteem toward others, along with attitudes toward one’s own and other ethnic groups, was examined among Estonian and Russian adolescents. Significant differences appeared across components of ethnic identity and between minority and majority groups. Positive feelings about the in-group (ethnic pride—EP) were associated with positive attitudes toward other ethnic groups among minority but not majority youths. Strong ethnic differentiation (ED), in turn, was associ-ated with negative out-group attitudes among both groups and positive in-group atti-tudes among the majority group. This contrast between aspects of ethnic identity appeared also in relation to self-esteem and esteem toward others. Whereas EP was associated with positive esteem toward others, ED correlated with negative evaluation of other people. Self-esteem correlated negatively with ED and was not related to EP. The salience of EP and ED may vary across different ethnic groups, depending on the group status and historical background of identity development. An adolescent’s identity is made up of various components and is influ-enced by many factors, one of which is ethnic identity. In childhood and adulthood, ethnic identity is more or less stable. In childhood, it is based on the values of important authoritative figures, and in adulthood, on personal choice. Adolescence, in turn, is the time to explore and achieve one’s own identity. Due to this transformation process, the ethnic identity of adolescents and young adults is more often studied than the identity of adults (Phinney, 1992; Rosenthal & Feldman, 1992). Associations between ethnic identity and self-esteem and ethnic identity and ethnic preferences have been some of the most widely studied areas in cross-cultural psychology during the past decades (e.g., Grossman, Wirt, & Davids, 1985; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). In most cases, strong ethnic identity 63