t w A STUDY OF TRENDS • 1 IN THE C ONTINUING DEVELOPMENT OF

There are differences in the way outstanding individuals perform in any field- art, music, sports, and business- yet in any field there are some basic guides or theories which give some direction to a novice and to which the expert returns when his or her performance begins to deteriorate. These theo-ries, or guides, can be translated into principles or general rules of action and used to teach others how to act in a parti-cular situation. Such a body of ideas and concepts from which appropriate principles can be derived exist in most areas of human knowledge, including management. The need for a clear concept of management and for a framework of related theory and principles was recognized many C years ago by such early practical scholars of management as Henri Fayol (1916), Chester Barnard (1938), and Alvin Brown (1947). Little has been done, however, to combine the indivi