The response of ships to underwater explosions

The various phases of an underwater explosion are described in the paper. Nomograms are given for characteristic parameters of the shock wave and the bubble pulsation. Possible effects of the water surface and the sea bottom are discussed. Characteristic ship-response phases are also reviewed and explained. They are demonstrated by actual examples of hull response and hull damage. The shipboard shock environment to which any installation aboard a ship is subjected is presented, and typical cases of shock damage are shown. The significance of the study of ship response to underwater explosions is reviewed. Generalization of the few controlled explosion tests against ships becomes possible by application to loading and response theories: The foundation is thus laid for increasing the combat reliability of ships and their endurance under attack. EFFECTS of underwater explosions on ships have been studied ever since it was realized that explosions- under water could be accomplished. Thus a new field in naval warfare was opened. Systematic explosion tests against ships started in the 1860's, and the first tests conducted in the United States by General H. L. Abbott were reported in 1881 [1]2. Since these early be-ginnings extensive test programs were conducted by all major naval powers prior to World War I. The name of Admiral Stocker stands out in the United States effort. The results of these studies are reflected in the protection measures designed into the hulls of those ships which fought in World War I. This war brought home the importance of the torpedo and floating or anchored mines in naval warfare, and thus established the need for better protection of ships against the effects of contact hits with these weapons