the Microbiome—Minireview Investigation of Host–Gut Microbiota Modulation of Therapeutic Outcome

A broader understanding of factors underlying interindividual variation in pharmacotherapy is important for our pursuit of “personalized medicine. ” Based on knowledge gleaned from the investigation of human genetics, drug-metabolizing enzymes, and transporters, clinicians and pharmacists are able to tailor pharma-cotherapies according to the genotype of patients. However, human host factors only form part of the equation that accounts for heterogeneity in therapeutic outcome. Notably, the gut microbiota possesses wide-ranging metabolic activities that expand the metabolic functions of the human host beyond that encoded by the human genome. In this review, we first illustrate the mechanisms in which gut microbes modulate pharmacokinetics and therapeutic outcome. Second, we discuss the application of metabonomics in deciphering the complex host–gut microbiota interaction in pharma-cotherapy. Third, we highlight an integrative approach with particular mention of the investigation of gut microbiota using culture-based and culture-independent techniques to complement the investigation of the host–gut microbiota axes in pharmaceutical research