SPECIAL ISSUE PAPER 1435 Force sensing and its application in minimally invasive surgery and therapy: a survey

Abstract: The reduced access conditions of minimally invasive surgery and therapy (MIST) impair or completely eliminate the feel of tool–tissue interaction forces. Many researchers have beenworking actively on thedevelopment of force sensors and sensing techniques to address this problem. The goal of this survey article is to summarize the state of the art in force sensing tech-niques for medical interventions in order to identify existing limitations and future directions. A literature search was performed from January to July 2009 using a combination of keywords relevant to the area, including force, sensor, sensing, haptics, and minimally invasive surgery. The literature search resulted in 126 articles with valuable content. This article presents a summary of the force sensing technologies, design specifications for force sensors in clinical applications, force sensors and sensing instruments that have been developed for MIST, and the experiments performed to determine the need for force information. Open areas of research include force sensor design, development of alternative methods of sensing, assessment of the impact of force informationonperformance, determinationof thebenefits of haptic information, and evaluation of the human factors involved in the processing and use of force information