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lithotomy was first used by the Greek surgeon Ammonius persons labouring under the stone, but will leave this to be done The Roman physician Celsius (25 BCE–25 CE) provided such as damage to the rectum or bladder, and death. For almost all stones in the urinary tract, open surgical proce-logical and nonsurgical less-invasive techniques, such as in the need for open stone surgery [2,3]. increasingly being adopted. This can include a sedentary life-crease in stress level, smoking, alcohol intake and others, all of which enhance a predisposition to stone formation directly or indirectly. An increased body mass index, diabetes mellitus, gout, metabolic syndrome (obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes Production and hosting by Elsevie