Acetaminophen-induced Liver Injury: from Animal Models to Humans

Drug-induced liver injury is an important clinical problem and a challenge for drug development. Whereas progress in understanding rare and unpredictable (idiosyncratic) drug hepatotoxicity is severely hampered by the lack of relevant animal models, enormous insight has been gained in the area of predictable hepatotoxins, in particular acetaminophen-induced liver injury, from a broad range of experimental models. Importantly, mechanisms of toxicity obtained with certain experimental systems, such as in vivomouse models, primary mouse hepatocytes, and metabolically competent cell lines, are being confirmed in translational studies in patients and in primary human hepatocytes. Despite this progress, suboptimal models are still being used and experi-mental data can be confusing, leading to controversial conclusions. Therefore, this review attempts to discuss mechanisms of drug hepatotoxicity using the most studied drug acetaminophen as an example. We compare the various experimental models that are used to investigate mechan-isms of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity, discuss controversial topics in the mechanisms, and assess how these experi-mental findings can be translated to the clinic. The success with acetaminophen in demonstrating the clinical relevance of experimental findings could serve as an example for the study of other drug toxicities