REVIEW Signaling control of the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR)

The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3) plays a crucial role in the regulation of drug metabolism, energy homeostasis, and cancer development through modulating the transcription of its numerous target genes. Different from prototypical nuclear receptors, CAR can be activated by either direct ligand binding or ligand-independent (indirect) mechanisms both initiated with nuclear translocation of CAR from the cytoplasm. In comparison to the well-defined ligand-based activation, indirect activation of CAR appears to be exclusively involved in the nuclear translocation through mecha-nisms yet to be fully understood. Accumulating evi-dence reveals that without activation, CAR forms a protein complex in the cytoplasm where it can be func-tionally affected by multiple signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss recent progresses in our under-standing of the signaling regulation of CAR nuclear accumulation and activation. We expect that this review will also provide greater insight into the similarity and difference between the mechanisms of direct vs. indirect human CAR activation