What Transcription Factors Can’t Do: On the Combinatorial Limits of Gene Regulatory Networks

A proof is presented that gene regulatory networks (GRNs) based solely on transcription factors can-not control the development of complex multicellular life. GRNs alone cannot explain the evolution of multicellular life in the Cambrian Explosion. Networks are based on addressing systems which are used to construct network links. The more complex the network the greater the number of links and the larger the required address space. It has been assumed that combinations of transcription factors generate a large enough address space to form GRNs that are complex enough to control the development of complex multicellular life. However, it is shown in this article that transcription factors do not have sufficient combinatorial power to serve as the basis of an addressing system for regulatory control of genomes in the development of complex organisms. It is proven that given n transcription factor genes in a genome and address combinations of length k then there are at most n/k k-length transcription factor addresses in the address space. The complexity of embryonic de-velopment requires a corresponding complexity of control information in the cell and its genome. Therefore, a different addressing system must exist to form the complex control networks required for complex control systems. It is postulated that a new type of network evolved based on an RNA-DNA addressing system that utilized and subsumed the extant GRNs. These new developmental control networks are called CENES (for Control genes). The evolution of these new higher networks would explain how the Cambrian Explosion was possible. The architecture of these higher level networks may in fact be universal (modulo syntax) in the genomes of all multicellular life