ARTICLE In the Eye (and Ears) of the Beholder: Receiver Psychology and Human Signal Design

Although the study of signals has been part of human behavioral ecology since the field’s inception,1 only recently has signaling theory become important to the evolutionary study of human behavior and culture.2 Signaling theory’s rise to prominence has been propelled mainly by applications of costly signaling theory,3 which has shed light on a wide variety of human behaviors ranging from hunting4 to religion.5,6 Costly signaling rests on the idea that wasteful but highly visible traits and behaviors can be explained as honest indicators of underlying qualities that are otherwise difficult to detect. For example, a laborious hunting technique may serve as a display of skill on the part of the hunter, who may then be favorably perceived by potential mates and allies.4 The costs of the activity ensure that the signal is honest, since unskilled hunters will not be able to perform as well. Despite the usefulness of this perspective, many such stud-ies begin by documenting a costly behavior that is then explained with reference to costly signaling theory. Because such behaviors are easy to detect, they may be overemphasized in the literature.7 Moreover, costly signaling theory by itsel