Return rates in studies of life history evolution: are biases large

SUMMARY Studies of life history evolution in passerine birds often depend on examin-ation of annual survival probability of adult birds. Most studies rely on return rates (proportion of marked individuals released in one year that are recaptured in the next year) to estimate annual survival probability. Yet, return rate includes both the probabil-ity of survival and the probability of recapturing or resighting the bird in the next time interval. We use numerical estimation to illustrate the increasing bias in return rate as an estimator of annual survival probability as recapture/resighting probability decreases. Recapture/resighting probability is normally assumed to be high and relatively invariant for recapture/resighting studies of color-banded territorial birds. We tested this assumption through examination of 11 color-banding studies of passerines. These studies showed that recapture/resighting probabilities vary strongly and cannot be generalized as high. In short, return rates generally are poor estimators of annual survival probabilities and use of return rates may strongly bias relationships explored in comparative studies or bias results of experiments to test survival costs of reproduction. Recapture/resighting probabil-ities should be estimated in all studies that attempt to estimate annual survival probabil-ities