ro

Replacing petroleum with electric propulsion has been recog-nized as an effective means to decrease the strain on the environ-ment [1]. Lithium-ion technology currently dominates the battery market of electric vehicles (EVs), but EVs have achieved little market penetration, primarily because of the high cost and low energy density of even state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries [2]. An alternative energy-conversion technology, fuel cells, which convert ctrical energy, are for powering EVs, due to its high energy density and comparatively short refueling time [3,4]. Fuel cells, which power EVs, typically use hydrogen as a fuel. This raises the issues of hydrogen production, transportation and storage, all while minimizing cost. Moreover, commercialization of hydrogen fueled fuel cells cannot be successfully achieved until safety issues resulting from the use of pressurized hydrogen are resolved, not to mention the high cost involved in the use of plat-inum catalysts required for electrochemical reactions [5,6]. * Corresponding author. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect ow ls